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Olive Oil Facts

Along with wine and pasta, olive oil is one of the food items Italy is most known for. Olive oil is the only oil extracted from the actual fruit, as opposed to grains or nuts, and is one of the most ancient manufactured foods.

The production of olive oil started over 5000 years ago in the Mediterranean region, where the olive tree is native. Over time, the production technology has evolved, but the highest quality olive oil is still produced according to the same principles through a process called ‘cold press’. The harvested mature olives, along with their pits, are crushed into a paste, which is then pressed (or nowadays centrifuged) to squeeze out the oil. The resulting product is fruity and aromatic, naturally low in free fatty acids (more on this later in this article), and has high nutritional value, thanks to a high content of vitamin E and other antioxidants. Because of the limited yield of this method, cold press olive oil has a relatively high market cost. As a result, extra virgin oil is normally enjoyed raw as a condiment, more than for cooking, also because of its relatively low smoke point (the temperature at which an oil starts smoking and burning, see the table below).

When the oil resulting from the cold press method has high acidity levels or other organoleptic defects, it can be refined using a chemical process. Since the process also eliminates part of the phenols and the vitamins, the resulting product has a more neutral flavor and is considered of lower quality from a nutritional point of view. However, refined oil has a higher smoke point, which, combined with a less intense flavor and lower prices, makes refined olive oil the preferred choice for deep frying and sautéing.

With the residues left after the cold press operation, which are called pomace, more oil is extracted by the use of heat and solvents. This “second-squeezing” yields what is called pomace olive oil, which is generally not suitable for human consumption unless mixed with higher quality oils.

As per official European Union regulations, olive oil can have the following denominations:

Oils extracted using purely mechanical means:

‘Olio Extra Vergine di Oliva’ (Extra Virgin Olive Oil), if the percentage of free fatty acids is lower than 0.8%.
‘Olio Vergine di Oliva’ (Virgin Olive Oil), if the percentage of free fatty acids is lower than 2%.

Oils extracted with mechanical means and then chemically refined:

‘Olio di Oliva’ (Olive Oil), obtained with a combination of refined and virgin olive oils.

Oils extracted from pomace using heat and solvents:

‘Olio di Sansa di Olive’ (Pomace Olive Oil), obtained by mixing refined pomace oil and virgin olive oils.

Despite the substantial use of butter in northern Italian cuisine, olive oil is the Italian condiment of choice and it literally defines the cuisine of central and southern Italy. Along the coasts, olive trees are a constant part of the scenery and the production of olives and of olive oil is a central part of the economy (along with Spain, Italy is one of the largest producers, consumers, and exporters of olive oil).

Unlike in North America, where olive oil is very much an elegant aliment used sparingly (olive oil tasting classes are even held), in Italy olive oil is an everyday choice and a very prominent ingredient. Combined with vinegar, it constitutes the most common Italian dressing. On salads, other vegetable oils are also used (e.g. corn oil, sunflower oil) – especially on the more delicate greens – but olive oil is overall the most popular. A drizzle of olive oil is often added on pizza (right before serving, also in its spicy version flavored with chilies) and on some soups (as a finishing touch and not stirred in). Raw olive oil is also one of the main components in many Mediterranean appetizers, including ‘Caprese salad’, ‘bruschetta’ and ‘panzanella’, and used in ‘sottoli’, oil-preserved vegetables and fish in jars.

Olive oil is also used in the preparation of countless Italian dishes. For instance, it is central in the very commonly used ‘soffritto’ (sautéed onion, celery, and carrot), which a lot of dishes are based upon (e.g.: Bolognese sauce, most stews, and several soups). In baking, olive oil is used in specialty bread and focacce. With some exceptions, olive oil is generally not used to make cakes or desserts or used to fry anything sweet (where animal fat or other vegetable oils are preferred for their flavor).

Contrary to popular belief, olive oil is also widely used for deep-frying, especially the less pricey “refined” olive oil (which also features a lower smoke point). Certain preparations specifically rely on the contribution to the flavor that olive oil frying brings (for instance ‘Melanzane alla Parmigiana’ -eggplant parmigiana-). Other vegetable oils are also used for frying (e.g.: peanut oil, sunflower oil, corn oil). But certainly not Canola!

Canola oil is extracted from the seeds of a particular breed of rapeseed (‘colza’ in Italian, scientific name: Brassica napus) which was artificially created in Canada in the ’70s. Natural rapeseed oil is considered inedible for humans because of its flavor and its content of erucic acid (which is mildly toxic). With Canola oil, instead, a much lower content of erucic acid was obtained, as well as better nutritional values and a more neutral flavor. The name ‘Canola’ (which stands for “Canadian oil, low acid”) was chosen to commercially identify the new product and dissociate it from rapeseed oil. In the ’90s, genetically engineered Canola capable to withstand certain types of herbicides was introduced. Not without controversies, this variety of Canola became the standard in North America.

Canola oil is exclusively produced in the United States and Canada, with only small amounts exported (mostly to Mexico and China). Canola oil is virtually absent from Europe where it only exists in its original form (rapeseed) and is used as animal feed and as a source for biodiesel. Despite the North American food organizations describing its properties as remarkable, Europeans are as suspicious of Canola as they are of any genetically modified products (as reflected in the article on the Italian Wikipedia).

Italians in North America strongly dislike Canola oil and find it particularly off-putting as frying oil because of its distinct flavor and smell. Given that refined olive oil is hard to find in North America, foodies have to resort to different oils for deep-frying, or accept that they have to use the more pricey extra virgin oil, and monitor its temperature to avoid reaching its (lower) smoke point.

Aside from their different properties, are some oils healthier than others? All vegetable oils are 100% fat and provide 120 calories per tablespoon, but cooking oils can be quite different from one another. To appreciate these differences, we need to put on our lab coats. In nature, fats and oils are mostly made of one particular kind of lipids: triglycerides, a stable combination of 3 fatty acids and 1 molecule of glycerol. Small amounts of free, unbound, fatty acids are also naturally present (their percentage increases as the oil deteriorates). Since free fatty acids are unstable polarized molecules, they oxidize and cause the oil to go rancid.

Lipids, in general, can be subdivided into two main categories based on their hydrogen content:

Saturated fats accommodate the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms. Saturation causes the fatty acids to be perfectly straight and this allows them to fit tightly one alongside the other. Because of this, saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature and are chemically quite stable – they naturally resist oxidation and have a relatively long shelf life. However, studies show that saturated fats are linked to high cholesterol and may cause heart diseases. Most saturated fats are of animal origin (e.g.: butter, cream, lard), but highly saturated molecules are also contained in tropical oils (e.g.: coconut oil).

Unsaturated fats contain a certain number of double bonds between carbon atoms, and consequently fewer hydrogen atoms. In unsaturated fats, the lack of symmetry causes the fatty acids to bend into more irregularly shaped molecules. As a result, unsaturated fats are generally liquid at room temperature and they are more subject to oxidation (to be preserved, they need to be kept away from light and heat). There is some evidence that unsaturated fats help lower blood cholesterol levels. Particularly, monounsaturated fatty acids (those where there is only one double-bond) seem to selectively lower only low-density lipoproteins levels while keeping high-density lipoproteins levels intact (the so-called “good cholesterol”). Monounsaturated fats are also preferred for frying as polyunsaturated oils tend to break down more easily at high temperatures. Canola, olive, and peanut oil are all classified as monounsaturated fats. Corn, soybean, sunflower oils are instead mostly polyunsaturated.

Finally, here is a diagram that shows the proportions of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the most common cooking oils (data from “Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004) – page 800″).

cooking oils classification — Cooking oils classification

Even though Canola oil has the lowest percentage of saturated fats, some regard olive oil as the healthiest cooking oil because of its higher percentage of monounsaturated fats. However, the percentage of saturated fats is comparably low in both oils, leaving the ultimate choice to flavor and personal preference.

Antipasto – A Primer on the Italian Starters Course

The word ‘antipasto’ (plural, ‘antipasti’) comes from anti- (before) and pasto (meal) and has absolutely nothing to do with pasta. An antipasto is the Italian equivalent of the starters course, but it also defines each individual appetizer (or hors d’oeuvre) that this course is made of. For instance, an Italian would say: “We started the meal with an antipasto [course]”, as well as: “They served us three types of antipasti [dishes]”.

It is common for any formal meals, home cooked as well as in restaurants, to begin with antipasto and then continue with first course (pasta or rice), second course (meat or fish), cheese, dessert, fruit, coffee, and digestive liquor. Everyday meals, instead, generally only include first course, second course, and optional coffee. Occasionally, however, an informal antipasto can be a nice addition to every meal.

Antipasti are often served in small portions meant for sharing; some restaurants even offer a buffet of antipasti, allowing the diners to mix and match their favorite items. More informal establishments, such as pizzerie and trattorie, are instead more likely to feature only a limited number of individual antipasti platters.

The most common antipasti are cold dishes, but there are a few regional specialties that are served warm or hot, all of which are almost completely unknown in North America. Some warm appetizers are:

‘Olive all’Ascolana’ (7). A particular type of green olives, stuffed with a meat paste, then breaded and deep-fried in olive oil (typical product of the Marche region).
‘Gnocchi fritti’ (6). A type of fried bread (see The Mystery of Bread, typical of the Emilia region).
‘Mozzarella in carrozza’. Literally: “mozzarella in the carriage”, breaded and deep fried mozzarella (typical of central Italy).
‘Bagna càuda’. Piedmontese dialect for “warm bath”, a sauce made with anchovies, garlic and oil, used as a dip for raw or cooked vegetables (typical of the Piedmont region).
Deep fried, grilled or oven roasted squid. Common all throughout Italy.

Typical cold antipasti include:

Cold cuts. E.g.: prosciutto crudo (2) (raw, cured pork – sometimes served with cantaloupe), prosciutto cotto (Italian ham), pancetta (Italian bacon), coppa (1) (called capicollo in southern Italy, also a type of cured pork), salumi (3) (cured sausages – including ‘bologna’ and other kinds of ‘mortadella’), lardo (4) (aromatized, cured pork fat), bresaola (cured lean beef – often served with slivers of Parmigiano, lemon and olive oil).
Grilled vegetables. E.g.: thinly sliced eggplants, zucchini, bell peppers.
Deli preparations. E.g.: ‘insalata di mare’ (seafood salad, with cooked squid, octopus, mussels and shrimp, marinated in lemon, oil and parsley), ‘insalata russa’ (cooked vegetables, mostly potatoes, peas, and carrots in mayonnaise), marinated anchovies, ‘sarde in saor’ (sardines in an onion marinade, typical of the Veneto region), Sicilian ‘caponata’ (fried eggplant in a tomato, onions, celery, olives and capers stew).
Savory Tarts. E.g.: spinach and ricotta ‘tortino’, cut into bite-size chunks.
Egg-based preparations. E.g.: cold ‘frittate’ (5) (for instance with roasted zucchini and herbs, with asparagus or with mushrooms) and ‘uova ripiene’ (halved hardboiled eggs where the yolk has been mixed with mayonnaise and canned tuna).
‘Sottaceti’. Pickled vegetables (preserved in vinegar), e.g.: cipolline (small onions in white vinegar), ‘cetriolini’ (baby cucumbers marinated in vinegar, and without any dill!).
‘Sottòli’. Vegetables preserved in olive oil, e.g.: black and green olives, artichokes, mushrooms, mixed vegetables, ‘cipolline borettane’ (a particular type of pearl onions, in a sweet and sour preparation).
Cheeses. E.g.: mozzarella (sometimes served in a Caprese salad – with sliced tomatoes and olive oil), provolone or any other fresh and mild cheeses.
Breads. E.g.: sliced artisan bread (served without butter!), flatbread (e.g. Sardinian ‘pane carasau’, possibly served with a tapenade of olives or mushrooms), breadsticks (sometimes wrapped in prosciutto slices).
Bread-based preparations. E.g.: ‘bruschetta’ (toasted bread with diced fresh tomatoes, garlic, basil and olive oil) and ‘panzanella’ (a red onion, tomato and cucumber salad, either with chunks of moistened stale bread – as commonly prepared in Tuscany, where it originated -, or served on a toasted bread slice – as typical in all central Italy -).

One particular preparation that can be served as an antipasto as well as a side is a mix of cooked vegetables (e.g.: cauliflowers, carrots, green beans, mushrooms, green peppers), pickled vegetables (e.g.: artichokes, onions, cucumbers), canned tuna, olives and tomato paste. In North America, a modified version of this dish (also containing dill pickles and various vegetable oils), sold under the generic name Antipasto, has become quite popular as a snack – completely obfuscating the original meaning of the word ‘antipasto’. This is why North Americans think of ‘antipasto’ as the Italian, “higher class” alternative to salsa, meant to be enjoyed with crackers, nachos or chips – what a great example of Italian food aberration!

There’s Milk and Milk

For a blog that talks about Italian food compared to its North American counterpart, milk is probably one of the less obvious choices of topics. But if cow milk is similar, how milk differs as a product and how Italians and North Americans look at it can be quite interesting. For instance, it is perfectly normal for Italians to buy fresh milk with a shelf life of 2 days, or meant to be stored unrefrigerated for months before consumption.

Before we venture ourselves into the different preservation techniques, let’s talk for a moment about the relationship between Italians and milk. Italians like fresh milk just as much as North Americans do, but research shows that its consumption as a drink is less in Italian adults. A glass of milk isn’t commonly available in coffee bars and especially in restaurants because Italians don’t have milk with their meals. Flavored milk is also quite uncommon in Italy – chocolate milk does exist, but is only meant for young children (and is not as dense as the North American one). The consumption of milk-derived products, such as cheese, is instead higher in Italy.

Flavor-wise, Italian milk can taste quite different from the North American one. Flavor largely depends on how the cows are fed. For instance, a prevalently dry hay diet produces a mildly cheesy aroma, while lush pasturage produces sweeter flavors, but also barnyard indoles(3). Homogenization and pasteurization, which are nowadays standard for almost all milk, also affect the flavor.

Homogenization is a treatment developed in France around 1900 to prevent milk cream from rising to the top. The homogenization process breaks down the fat globules into smaller ones (from 4 μm to 1 μm). Caseine particles form a coating around the fat globules and this weighs them down and interferes with their ability to clump, keeping them evenly dispersed in the milk. The structural changes introduced by homogenization cause the milk to taste blander, but also feel creamier, and appear whiter(3).

The use of heat as a way to sanitize milk has been documented since the 1820s, but it took until the beginning of the 20th century for milk pasteurization to be regulated and required by the governments(3). Raw unpasteurized milk can, in fact, be quite harmful, as it has a relatively high chance to become infected with dangerous bacteria including salmonella and listeria. Nowadays, raw milk is illegal in Canada, whereas in Italy and in the U.S. its commercialization is restricted to authorized farms (which must be frequently inspected) that can only sell directly to the public within their premises.

The effects of thermal processing on milk vary based on its intensity and provide different levels of sanitation, shelf life extension, and side-effects on flavor and nutritional values. The following treatments are considered standard(2):

Thermalization: 20 seconds at ~65°C. The process kills many vegetative organisms and bacteria that produce enzymes that eventually cause milk deterioration. In the dairy industry, milk is often thermalized before undergoing further processing. Flavor and nutritional properties are unaltered.
Low pasteurization: 30 minutes at 63°C, or 15 seconds at 72°C. The latter is referred to as Flash Pasteurization or HTST (high temperature, short-time) and is considered the pasteurization standard for milk. It represents the minimum requirement by law in many countries (including Italy, the U.S., and Canada). Low pasteurized milk is safe to drink because all yeasts, molds, and pathogen bacteria have been killed. However, bacterial spores and some enzymes are preserved. Even if refrigerated, shelf life is limited to 1 or 2 weeks (depending on the milk’s “keeping qualities”). At strict HTST intensity, the flavor is almost unaltered and so are the nutritional properties. The slightly higher time and temperature (20 seconds at 75°C) required by homogenized milk are however sufficient to introduce small alterations.
High pasteurization: 20 seconds at 85-100°C. This process, which essentially consists of a short boiling, kills all vegetative organisms and deactivates most enzymes, although still doesn’t affect bacterial spores. High pasteurized milk has a longer shelf life but is more vulnerable to post-processing contamination because the higher temperatures also eliminate the bacterial growth inhibitors. As a result, this type of pasteurization is usually operated on the bottled product. The milk serum starts to denature and a “cooked” flavor develops. The nutritional properties are slightly reduced because of a loss of vitamin C.
Sterilization: 30 minutes at 110°C (prolonged boiling), or Ultra-High Temperature processes (UHT) ranging between 30 seconds at 130°C, and 1 second at 145°C. UHT milk (called “ultrapasteurized” in the United States) is preferred over milk sterilized by prolonged boiling because of the more limited browning and a better flavor. Shelf life is generally between 3 and 6 months, unrefrigerated. Once opened, it only lasts for 3-4 days at 4°C because natural bacteria inhibitors have been destroyed by the heating process. The nutritional value of UHT milk is reduced, but it is still a great source of essential nutrients such as calcium and proteins. UHT milk is particularly useful in all cases where transportation or storage of fresh milk is impossible, as well as for all uses that call for boiled milk. UHT milk is very common in Italy, where it represents almost 50% of the entire milk consumption, Italians are mostly used to its flavor and some even prefer it over fresh milk. North America, instead, resists the introduction of UHT because of its flavor and because it’s deemed not acceptable that milk can be stored unrefrigerated.

In recent years, the milk industry has devised an alternative to UHT which is also capable of extending shelf life, still without using preservatives. Through a process called “microfiltration”, between 99.0 and 99.9% of bacterial cells (including most spores) are removed by using ceramic membranes with pore sizes of about 1 μm(2). Since the fat globules are also about 1 μm in diameter, before microfiltration the milk’s cream is separated, sterilized using a regular UHT treatment, and then added back. Microfiltered milk is nutritionally equivalent to regular pasteurized milk, but with a longer shelf life of up to 3-4 weeks, if properly refrigerated. Flavor-wise, it’s considered similar to regular pasteurized milk, but with a creamier texture.

Under the same storage temperatures, milk’s shelf life depends on its “keeping quality”, which derives from the quality of the raw milk, the type of pasteurization, and the level of post-processing contamination(1). Keeping quality varies from country to country based on shelf life demand. In Italy, an expiry date of only a few days in the future is considered acceptable for milk, since it’s quite common to buy fresh ailments daily. In North America, a minimum of 2 weeks is generally the requirement.

Because of the shorter shelf life of fresh milk, Italian milk is sold almost exclusively in 1-liter containers. UHT milk is also sold in 1-liter containers because of its limited expiry time once opened. North American milk instead supports larger formats up to 4 liters, or 1 gallon (in the U.S.).

Another important difference between Italian and North American milk is in the use of “fortification”. In Canada and the US, by law, vitamin A (a fat-soluble vitamin) is added to all skimmed milk to compensate for the amount that was removed when the milk was skimmed. Milk is also fortified with vitamin D, as regulated by law, to compensate for the lack of exposure of the cattle to direct sunlight. Italian milk has no additives.

Finally, as a summary of the differences here is a comparison table.

	North American Milk	Italian Milk
Percentages of fat available	• Whole (3.5% to 3.8%, called Homogenized in Canada). • 2% or “Reduced fat”. • 1% or “Low-fat”. • Semi-skimmed 1.8% (not available in Canada). • Skimmed (less than 0.5%).	• Whole (3.5% fat min). • Partly skimmed (1.5% to 1.8%). • Skimmed (less than 0.3%).
Retail sizes	Containers up to 1 gallon (4 liters in Canada).	Containers usually only up to 1 liter.
Fortification	Vitamins A added to all skimmed milk. Vitamin D added to all milk.	No vitamins added – vitamins are not even mentioned in the nutritional info.
Types of sanitation	• Raw milk – illegal in Canada, rare in the U.S. • Pasteurized: 2+ weeks shelf life at 4°C max. • Microfiltered pasteurized – not very common. 3-4 weeks shelf life at 4°C max. • Long preservation milk (UHT) – rarely available. Over 3 months shelf life at room temperature.	• Raw milk legal if sold on the premises from the producer. • Pasteurized milk() or Fresh Pasteurized milk(*): 6 days shelf life at 4°C max. • Microfiltered pasteurized milk. 2-3 weeks shelf life at 4°C max. • Long preservation milk (UHT). Over 3 months shelf life at room temperature.

(*) Milk proteins at least 11% of the total proteins.
(**) Pasteurization has to occur within 48 hrs from milking. Milk proteins at least 14% of the total (when over 15.5%, can be labeled “High Quality”).

References

(1) Smit, G. (Editor). Dairy Processing: Maximising Quality. Cambridge, GBR: Woodhead Publishing, Limited, 2003.

(2) Walstra, Pieter. Dairy Technology: Principles of Milk Properties and Processes. New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker, 1999.

(3) Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Second edition (2004).

Wine and Italy

With over 50 liters per person per year, Italy is one of the largest wine consumers in the world. It goes without saying that wine is deeply entrenched in Italian culture. Wine is standard on the dinner table of every family and it’s generally not seen as a decadent treat, but rather as a noble complement to the meal, at par with bread. And, right next to bread, wine is even “sanctified” by being an important part of the Catholics celebrations.

Even though Italians are exposed to wine from the time they are very young, children are generally not attracted to it. This is partly due to the fact that table wines tend to be an acquired taste, and arguably also because the wine’s appeal is demystified by its wide availability. As a result, generally, there is no need for the law to regulate wine commercialization or consumption based on age. Anybody can buy wine (or any other type of alcohol, for that matter) in regular grocery shops and supermarkets. The young generations, however, are nowadays getting more and more attracted to wine in a phenomenon that has seen the rebirth of ‘enoteche’. Literally meaning wine cellars, enoteche are wine-tasting bars that offer wine by the glass or by the bottle, usually along with cold cuts and cheese.

The passion for wine is big in most Italians, but excluding professional winemakers almost no Italian is interested in making their own – certainly, there are no wine kits available! This is because winemaking is considered a challenging process that is usually not worth the effort, given that in Italy basic wines are inexpensive and generally far more pleasing (to the refined average palate) than any amateur wines. Some people, however, order large quantities of wine from the makers and have it delivered to their homes by tanker. They usually store it in their own demijohns and then fill one flask at a time, or bottle it in glass bottles meant to be reused. This is a relatively common practice in certain areas, both and as a hobby and to save money on an item of everyday consumption, as wine is.

As we were saying, winemaking is complex. The process starts with the preparation of the grapes, which is different for red and for white wines. To make red wine, black or red grapes are machine crushed (no one stomps on the grapes with their feet anymore!) and allowed to have a first fermentation along with their skins. White wine is instead fermented grape juice, extracted by pressing grapes and discarding the skins. As a result, it’s technically possible to make white wines out of red grapes, though generally, this is not the case. Rosé wines are made by extracting juice from red grapes while allowing a minimal contact with their skins (and absolutely not by mixing red and white wines!) The reason why the skin makes so much difference lies in its high content of polyphenols, compared to the grape’s pulp. Not only do polyphenols affect the flavor and the color of the wine, but they are also responsible for the tannins (and the astringent mouthfeel that they bring). Polyphenols also act as antioxidants with a stabilizing effect that allows red wines to age far longer than any white wines.

The first fermentation starts when yeast is added to convert the sugars into ethanol (and CO2, which is released into the air), a process that usually takes a couple of weeks. If this transformation is incomplete, some of the sugars contained in the grapes remain in the must and the resulting wine will be sweet (the fermentation can be interrupted by lowering the temperature or by adding chemicals to kill the yeast). Wines then undergo a second fermentation: a bacterial process meant to reduce the wine’s acidity. White wines are generally fermented in stainless steel containers, whereas reds can be transferred to wood kegs to absorb additional flavors. To obtain sparkling wines, a third fermentation takes place inside of the bottle, where CO2 is trapped.

Because of their different composition, red wines and white wines have unique properties and different uses. White wines usually have a lower percentage of alcohol (10-12%), they are consumed slightly chilled (around 10 °C) and are paired up with appetizers, delicate first courses, white meats, and particularly fish and seafood. Red wines have instead generally higher alcohol content (11-14%), they are consumed at room temperature, or slightly below it (around 18 °C) and are paired up with strong first courses, aged cheeses, and red meats. Both white and red wines are also fundamental in cooking, and, generally, they are not interchangeable.

Most commercial wines are sold “ready to drink” and are not meant to be stored for a long time. Aging wine is a very difficult process that requires perfect conditions of temperature and humidity, conditions that can’t be easily achieved without proper equipment or environment. Storing wine is instead relatively easy: wine bottles should be kept away from direct sunlight and laying on their side to keep the cork wet (a dry cork will shrink and let some air into the bottle). Once opened, some wines need to rest briefly in a decanter both to allow sediments to deposit and to promote some “aeration.” Though slightly controversial, aeration is considered beneficial to “soften” strong red wines, reducing the harshness of their tannins. Aeration is generally not recommended for white wines and more delicate reds as it may disperse some of their aromas and is never recommended for sparkling wines.

Wine is best appreciated in proper stemware. The stem allows the wine to maintain its temperature by ensuring minimal contact with the hand of the person holding it. Red wines are generally served in larger glasses, with wide openings to allow for more aeration (large surface of contact between wine and air). White wines require less aeration and are usually tasted in taller, narrower glasses that also help the wine better maintain its temperature. Sparkling wines are instead served in very narrow and tall glasses (called flûtes) to reduce the contact with the air and keep the bubbles inside and towards the nose of the person drinking it.

Before introducing a list of the main Italian wines, let’s go over the denominations recognized by law:

Table wines that don’t follow naming regulations. Generally, these are lower quality wines where the grape and the year of production are not indicated on the label. In some cases, however, table wines can have very high quality and be sought by connoisseurs that don’t need any official certifications.
IGT – Table wines with Indicazione Geografica Tipica. The grapes are certified to come from a geographical area where the named grape is typical. Currently, there are about 120 wines under this category.
DOC – Wines with Denominazione di Origine Controllata. The exact location of the origin is certified. In Italy, there are currently about 300 DOC wines.
DOCG – Wines with Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita. The designation of origin is certified and guaranteed. Currently, only 35 wines belong to this category.

The law also specifies which qualifiers can be appended to the name and their exact meanings:

When a wine’s name contains the word ‘Classico‘ (e.g. Chianti Classico), the wine is guaranteed to be made in the core of its typical region. All ‘Classico’ wines are DOC or DOCG.
The word ‘Riserva‘ can only be used on wines that have been aged more than the time strictly required by their denomination. The label must show the year of production.
When a wine’s label shows the word ‘Novello‘, the wine is guaranteed to have been bottled within the end of the year of when (at least 30% of) its grapes have been harvested. The label must show the year of the vintage.
The qualifier ‘Superiore‘ can only be used to indicate a wine whose alcohol level is greater by at least 1% than the minimum established for its designation.

Finally, here is a list of some of the most renowned Italian wines. Many of them are named after the grapes that they are made of (highlighted in bold). Some other wines, instead, have their own unique names, usually to reflect their areas of origin.

Amarone -Veneto-, e.g.: Amarone della Valpolicella [DOCG]. Like the actual Valpolicella, it’s made with a grape called Corvina after it has been partially dried out (in a process called ‘passito’) to increase its sugar level and consequently the alcohol level of the wine (up to 15% and higher). Amarone is a well-known wine that improves when aged and can get quite expensive.

Barbaresco [DOCG] -Piedmont-. High-quality wine made with Nebbiolo grape, aged at least 2 years in kegs, and with an alcohol level of 12.5%. Its color is ruby with a burgundy tint, with a full body and hints of spices and bitter almond. It’s usually at its best after aging for 10 or more years.

Barbera -Piedmont-, e.g.: Barbera d’Alba [DOC], Barbera d’Asti [DOCG], Barbera del Monferrato [DOC], Barbera del Monferrato Superiore [DOCG]. Barbera is the most common grape in Piedmont, its wines are intensely ruby in color, quite dry and with relatively high acidity that decreases with aging.

Barolo [DOCG] -Piedmont-. Considered the best Italian wine, Barolo is made with Nebbiolo grape, like Barbaresco, but is aged at least 3 years, 2 of which in oak or chestnut kegs. With a minimum alcohol level of 13%, Barolo reaches its best characteristics after 10-20 years. It’s burgundy in color, full-bodied, complex and balanced in flavor, with berries and violet inflections and a spice aftertaste. Barolo can reach astronomical prices.

Brachetto -Piedmont-, e.g.: Brachetto d’Acqui [DOCG]. Brachetto is a grape used to make a red dessert wine. Sweet red wines are not very common, aside from Brachetto the only other renowned one is the somewhat similar Fragolino. The commercialization of Fragolino is however illegal in the European Union because it’s made with a grape not indigenous to Europe (called Concord grape, ‘uva fragola’) – it’s however sold in Switzerland, because not part of the EU.

Brunello di Montalcino [DOCG] -Tuscany-, made with the Sangiovese grape. Brunello di Montalcino is bright ruby in color, with dry strong tannins. It is aged a minimum of 4 years. It’s younger version is called Rosso di Montalcino [DOC], more fruity and with more moderate tannins.

Chianti [DOCG] and Chianti Classico [DOCG] -Tuscany-, made with a blend of grapes including Sangiovese and Malvasia. One of the most famous Italian wines in the world, Chianti has a dark ruby color, with burgundy hints, a very balanced dry and just slightly tannic flavor that turns more velvety with aging. It used to be known for being bottled in the typical ‘fiasco‘ (nowadays, however, this is no longer the case).

Dolcetto -Piedmont-, e.g.: Dolcetto d’Asti [DOCG], Dolcetto d’Alba [DOCG], Dolcetto d’Acqui [DOC]. The name means ‘cute little sweet’ and refers to the fact that the Dolcetto grape grows very easily and produces good everyday’s wines. Its flavor is fruity with hints of almonds and bitter herbs.

Grignolino -Piedmont-, e.g.: Grignolino del Monferrato [DOCG], Grignolino d’Asti [DOCG]. Grignolino has a light ruby color and a dry flavor, just slightly bitter.

Lambrusco, e.g.: Lambrusco Salamino di Santacroce [DOC] -Emilia-Romagna-, Lambrusco Mantovano [DOC] -Lombardy-. Lambrusco wines are sparkling, either dry or semi-sweet and have intense fruity perfumes and rich flavors, with low acidity and alcohol levels; their color is dark ruby, with violet foam. Lambrusco is usually enjoyed chilled and paired up with pasta and white meats.

Malvasia Bianca, e.g.: Malvasia di Grottaferrata -Lazio-, Malvasia di Cagliari [DOC] -Sardinia-, Malvasia delle Lipari -Sicily-. Malvasia Bianca is the most common variety of the Malvasia grape, used in the production of many white wines (including Frascati [DOC]). White Malvasia has a full body and fruity/nutty inflections. A red version (Malvasia Nera) also exists.

Marsala [DOC] -Sicily-. Marsala is a fortified wine similar to Port, made by adding ‘Grappa’ (an alcoholic beverage made by distillation of wine press residue) to elevate the alcohol level to about 20%. Different varieties exist (golden, amber, ruby), made with different Sicilian grapes.

Montepulciano -Abruzzo-, e.g.: Montepulciano d’Abruzzo [DOC], Montepulciano d’Abruzzo Colline Teramane [DOCG]. The Montepulciano grape produces intense dark wines, with moderate acidity and low tannins.

Moscato, a grape grown all throughout Italy used for making sweet, lightly sparkling or sparkling dessert wines. E.g.: Moscato d’Asti [DOCG] -Piedmont-, moderately sparkling, golden in color and Asti Spumante [DOCG] -Piedmont- sparkling, light yellow in color.

Nebbiolo -Piedmont-, the grape used to make several DOCG wines, including Barbaresco, Barolo, and Nebbiolo d’Alba [DOCG]. The wine commercialized under the name Nebbiolo is the youngest of all three, with a minimum aging of 1 year and a minimum alcohol level of 12%.

Prosecco, e.g.: Prosecco di Conegliano Valdobbiadene [DOCG] -Veneto-. Prosecco is a dry, very sparkling wine (‘spumante’ in Italian, which means foaming). Considered the Italian (cheaper) substitute of Champagne, can go from slightly sweet to very dry (‘brut’).

Sangiovese, e.g.: Sangiovese di Romagna [DOC] -Emilia-Romagna-. The Sangiovese grape is also used in the production of several renowned wines, including Chianti, Brunello di Montalcino, and Rosso di Montepulciano.

Tocai, e.g.: Tocai Friulano Colli Orientali del Friuli [DOC] -Friuli-Venezia Giulia-. The grape is related to Sauvignon Vert, light yellow with hints of green in color, and hints of bitter almond flavor.

Trebbiano, e.g.: Trebbiano d’Abruzzo [DOC] -Abruzzo-, Trebbiano di Romagna [DOC] -Emilia-Romagna-. Trebbiano, pale in color and relatively light in flavor, is the most common white Italian wine. It’s used used to make several DOC wines including Orvieto [DOC] -Umbria-.

Valpolicella [DOC] -Veneto- made with Corvina grape and a blend of other red grapes. A very balanced wine, with inflections of almonds and spice.

Verdicchio -Marche-, e.g.: Verdicchio di Matelica [DOCG], Verdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi [DOCG]. The name comes from the word ‘verde’ (green). The wines made with Verdicchio grape have relatively high acidity and a nutty flavor.

Verduzzo – e.g.: Verduzzo Piave [DOC] -Veneto-, Verduzzo Friulano Colli Orientali del Friuli [DOC] -Friuli-Venezia Giulia-. Like for Verdicchio, the name also comes from ‘verde’ (green). Verduzzo wines are dry and slightly sparkling (‘frizzanti’).

Vermentino -Sardinia, Liguria, Piedmont-, e.g.: Vermentino di Sardinia [DOC], Vermentino di Gallura [DOCG] -Sardinia-. Vermentino is light yellow in color, with slight hints of green. Its flavor is dry, fresh, slightly sour and with a moderately bitter aftertaste.

Vernaccia, the name of several unrelated grapes, used in the production of many important wite wines, e.g.: Vernaccia di San Gimignano [DOCG] -Tuscany-, Vernaccia di Oristano [DOC] -Sardinia-, Vernaccia di Serrapetrona spumante [DOCG] -Marche-.

Cantucci con vin santo — Cantucci with Vin Santo

Vin Santo, dessert wine usually made with Trebbiano and Malvasia grapes, e.g.: Vin Santo del Chianti [DOC], Vin Santo del Chianti Classico [DOC], Vin Santo di Montepulciano [DOC] -Tuscany-. The name ‘santo’ (which means holy in Italian) possibly comes from the fact that it was typically used during the mass. The wine’s elevated sugars and alcohol level is obtained by allowing the grapes to dry out before fermenting. A common way to enjoy Vin Santo is to pair it up with almond biscotti called Cantucci, according to the Tuscan tradition.

Breakfast or Colazione?

Breakfast in Italy is called ‘prima colazione’, or simply ‘colazione’. It’s the first meal of the day and many say it’s the most important one too. However, North Americans and Italians have fundamental differences of opinions in what to eat for breakfast. The first main difference is that savory breakfast items are almost absent in most parts of Italy. You would never see an Italian eating bacon and eggs, or even a bagel, which is standard in North America – and these items don’t appear on restaurant menus either. Things are quite different on the sweet side as well: no cereals, no peanut butter, no pancakes, no waffles or scones. What do Italians eat for breakfast then?

These are the components of a typical Italian breakfast: ‘caffè latte’ (hot milk with coffee) with a baked product, such as:

Bread or toast (with unsalted butter and jam, or just jam);
‘Fette biscottate’ (called rusk in English) (also with butter and/or jam);
Pastries (e.g. croissants) or cakes (e.g. brioches);
‘Biscotti’ (generic name for cookies, but more like the Italian version of cereal), typically ‘frollini’ (butter shortbreads), usually dipped in the caffè latte.

Hot chocolate or plain black tea (with milk or lemon) is sometimes an alternative to coffee. Other options that are generally reserved for young children include milk with barley or malt coffee substitutes, or milk with cocoa powder.

Italians follow more rules in general as to when to eat what. A cappuccino, for instance, is a morning treat, it’s OK in the afternoon as an alternative to espresso during coffee breaks, but it’s definitely not a replacement for the after-dinner espresso. Everything has a purpose, and the espresso after a meal is meant to be one last strong punch of flavor – the delicate nuances of a cappuccino would be out of place, and the milk would be heavy on a full stomach.

In Italy, a small selection of cereals with milk or yogurt cater to the diet-conscious but aren’t very common. Fruit juices are quite popular, especially pear, apricot, peach, and apple. With the exception of citrus, Italian-style juices are generally thicker compared to their North American equivalents, are also sold in individual glass bottles (20 ml), and are sometimes considered a complete meal. Fresh squeezed orange juice is also well-liked, especially during winter.

As you can see, sweet things are the preference. This is the case almost everywhere in Italy, with the Alto Adige region being the most notable exception. In Alto Adige, also called Südtirol, the Austrian influence can clearly be seen in the tradition of having cheese, ham, and eggs for breakfast.

A somewhat limited savory presence can also be found in hotels. Italian hotels generally just offer an expanded version of a home breakfast, but with the possible addition of a sample of cold cuts and cheese, in line with what is internationally known as Continental Breakfast.

A truly Italian routine, however, is to go have breakfast in what Italians call a “bar”. These have very little in common with North American bars. Italian bars are essentially licensed coffee shops that typically serve espresso all day, breakfast in the morning, sandwiches and beer around lunch time, appetizers (called ‘aperitivi’), and long drinks near dinner, and are usually closed in the evening. Bars are extremely popular in Italy – in the big cities you can find them at every corner, and they are all different from one another being usually privately owned (there are no major chains). Bars’ consistent quality, contained prices, and prompt service make them the preferred choice for people who commute to work or to school – it takes less time to get breakfast in a bar than it does to have it at home, and most Italians would also find it more satisfying. Prompt service however comes with a caveat. The busier the place, the more you should know what you want to order before you go in – you don’t want a “no cappuccino for you!” reaction from the bartender. Cash payment is also much preferred because of its speed. Then, after you get served, you are supposed to step aside and consume your breakfast quickly, trying not to exasperate the server and patrons behind you (the fact that it is your turn to be served doesn’t buy you all the time that you want to choose your pastry or dawdle in the bar). Most bars even encourage a quick turnover by having high tables and no sit-down service. You can read more on the Italian Bar in this article.

Bar-style breakfast consists almost exclusively of what the Italians call ‘cappuccino’ and ‘brioche’. We’ve already talked about cappuccino, and its alternatives such as ‘latte macchiato’ (with more milk), coffee ‘macchiato’ (with less milk), or just plain espresso (with no milk at all). By “brioche”, Italians actually mean any kind of baked good, the most common of which is in fact a croissant (‘cornetto’ in Italian) and almost never an actual brioche. A croissant can be “empty” (‘vuoto’), or filled (e.g. with ‘crema pasticcera’ -pastry cream-, apricot jam, chocolate cream, whipped cream, apple filling, almond filling, etc.). Other breakfast pastries which are also usually filled are: ‘fagottino’ (the equivalent of the French ‘pain au chocolat‘, when filled with chocolate), ‘sfogliatina’ (puff pastry pockets), ‘bombolone’ (also called with its German name ‘krapfen‘, the equivalent of a filled donut), ‘girelle’ (twirls) with raisins. Savory croissants, with optional ham and/or cheese, can also be found, but are definitely far less in vogue than the sweet versions. Other savory options are ‘pizzette’ (small puff pastry pizzas, usually with tomato and mozzarella), but are quite hard to find.

In Italy, the maximum price of the main bar menu items is regulated by the law. This makes it so all bars tend to charge the same maximum amounts allowed. While not competing on prices, bars still compete on quality. Pastry shops that are also cafés (called ‘bar pasticceria’) generally offer higher standards for baked goods, compared to regular ‘bars’; this is especially true in small towns. In big cities the bars with the higher customers turnover often get their pastries delivered fresh from pastry shops even multiple times a day and the quality of their baked goods is excellent. Smaller bars instead often bake their croissants themselves (from an industrially made base), and while smelling fantastic because of the onsite baking their croissants are not as good (and sometimes are thought of as more buttery and harder to digest). Still, smaller bars make good business in small towns where the competition is less, still providing a service to their customers.

In conclusion, breakfast is for the Italians a brief yet dear parenthesis in the morning. Even on weekends and holidays people generally don’t go out for sit-down breakfasts. In fact, there are no ‘all day breakfast’ places in Italy (though it’s definitely possible to have a cappuccino all day, it’s uncommon to see people have a croissant in the afternoon, so much so that bars tend to run out of pastries early and don’t replenish). As a result, breakfast in Italy is not necessarily a moment of social aggregation; it’s at most a meet-up point for 2 or 3 individuals.

The lack of savory options in the Italian breakfast also originates other interesting differences between Italy and North America. One difference is that for the Italians eggs are totally a lunch option (as the main or the second course). Another difference is that in Italy there is absolutely nothing like North American brunch; being the Italian breakfast so different from lunch, the two don’t mix: after sleeping in on weekends Italians may just decide to skip breakfast altogether and have their Sunday’s lasagna!

Eating Vegetarian

Italian cuisine, like many cuisines of the Mediterranean, is considered “vegetarian-friendly” because it features plenty of meatless dishes. Since not everybody has the same definition of “vegetarian,” let’s first clarify the terminology. By vegetarian dish, I mean a dish where no meat or fish in any form was ever used (so, no shrimp, no chicken broth, no anchovy paste), but where animal products may be involved (so, yes milk, eggs, honey). This type of vegetarianism is referred to as lacto-ovo, and it does include cheese made without using animal-derived rennet. For a list of Italian vegetarian cheese (updated to 2018), please download the pdf (courtesy of GreenMe).

North American cuisine tends to be very meat-centered, with the exception of some “vegetarian-heavy” cities (see here for a Top Ten list) where a higher percentage of vegetarians tends to live. In Italy, instead, a number of meatless dishes are fully part of everyone’s diet, and they can also be found in pretty much every restaurant. As a result, there aren’t many dedicated vegetarian restaurants in Italy (but you may find some in the big cities). Another consequence is that imitation meat is not as common as it is in North America – Italian people that become vegetarian generally have plenty of options and don’t need to resort to imitations.

One slight problem with vegetarian food in Italy is that it is sometimes hard to recognize which dishes are in fact vegetarian (and restaurants don’t help by generally not tagging vegetarian dishes on their menus). Italians don’t call a pasta dish “vegetarian,” they simply call it pasta al pomodoro, trenette al pesto, pasta alla Norma. Many pizzas are also vegetarian, but they go under the names of marinara, margherita (mozzarella is generally made without rennet), funghi (mushrooms), olive (olives). There is, however, one type of pizza explicitly called “vegetariana” or “ortolana”, which topped with grilled veggies.

As for the reasons why meat is not the main star of the show as it is in North America, a few theories can be made:

North America has a tradition of cattle ranching due to its vast prairies and veggies tend to be seen more as a side dish, something that you have to eat because it’s healthy, but that doesn’t add much to the flavor. There isn’t much tradition around vegetable preparations, and, in some cases, they are even considered more of a garnish that you don’t have to eat.
Italy, on the other hand, has a very different geography that makes cattle ranching more challenging. Also, the postwar years were especially tough, and meat hasn’t always been as available to everyone as it is nowadays. As a result, traditional cuisine naturally drifted towards using more produce and more starches.

But there may also be a more practical reason why produce is considered so differently: many of the vegetables grown in southern Europe are simply tastier than their North American counterparts. Possibly because of the favorable climate and soils, vegetables actually taste amazing! Better veggies make for more successful vegetarian dishes and, in an environment where the cuisine is centered on a few clean flavors and a handful of high-quality ingredients, interesting vegetables with complex flavor profiles simply claimed a central role in a number of dishes.

Unfortunately, Italian restaurants in North America tend to feature few, if any, meatless dishes on their menus. This is probably an adaptation of the expectation of the general public. Pizzerias tend to be more reliable in featuring at least a few vegetarian options.

Is Water Just Water?

Mineral water is extremely popular in Italy. The major brands of mineral waters are from specific springs, which are sometimes also renowned spas, and therefore have a precise location of origin.

But is mineral water just water? No, it also contains a unique mix of minerals and ions. Every spring is different, and the concentration of minerals can vary substantially across them. Most waters have mild diuretic properties or help digestion, but the composition of some makes them suitable as an aid in treating specific medical conditions. Waters that have low amounts of minerals (“oligominerali,” in Italian) are generally suitable for everyone, but those are under a low-sodium diet still need to pay special attention to the label (which by law must list the full composition.)

Most Italian waters that aren’t naturally carbonated are sold in two varieties: still (liscia -smooth, plain- or naturale -natural-) and sparkling (gassata -gasified, carbonated- or frizzante -fizzy-) where carbonation is artificially added. Rarely, spring water may have mild natural carbonation, generally also associated with higher amounts of minerals.

Most Italians have their own favorite brands of mineral waters. And even if they don’t, they certainly have a strong preference on whether they like still water or sparkling water. Carbonated drinks, in general, are obtained by adding pressurized CO₂, which partly combines with water to form Carbonic Acid (H₂CO₃). H₂CO₃ is a weak, unstable acid that spontaneously separates back into CO₂ and water when at atmospheric pressure and room temperature. The tingling sensation that comes from drinking sparkling water is caused by the formation of bubbles as well as because a small amount of H₂CO₃ is still dissolved and gives a slight burning sensation. That’s why carbonated mineral water has more flavor than still mineral water from the same spring.

Still mineral water aisle in an Italian supermarket

All mineral water is subject to a mandatory bacterial analysis and certification from a reputable university. As for the bottle, PET is becoming more popular, but glass bottles are still used and preferred for carbonated water because the carbonation can slowly escape from porous PET. In either case, the empties are usually returned to the store where the water was bought, either to be recycled or -in the case of glass bottles- returned to the manufacturers to be reused (washed, sanitized, refilled, and re-labeled).

Even though Italian tap water is suitable for drinking and has good flavor in most areas, it’s more common for households to consume bottled mineral water. This is because of a few different reasons: 1) A good portion of Italians like carbonated over still and home carbonation systems are not very common; 2) There is definitely more appeal for a bottled water certified to come from a natural spring in the mountains than for tap water from decades-old city pipes that has stagnated in a distribution tank; 3) Mineral water is relatively inexpensive in Italy and, because of its popularity, is easy to find and convenient home delivery is often available.

Unlike in North America, restaurants don’t offer complimentary iced tap water. You can ask for it, but normally people order bottled mineral water, sparkling or not. However, by law, every bar and café open to the public has to offer a glass of tap water if requested, even to non-customers.

Imported bottled water is becoming more and more popular in North America, usually in its sparkling version. And since it’s imported water, which was even bottled in Italy, Italian mineral water can be quite expensive. The market is increasing not only because of the appeal of a novelty but also because carbonated mineral water is a zero-calorie option that tastes better than soda water and actually pairs up with food. There are even mineral water tasting classes which give the qualification of Idrosommelier.

To enjoy properly, mineral water should be served chilled and, optionally, with a lemon slice. Ice should be avoided since, as it melts, it would dilute the dissolved minerals as well as the carbonation. Sparkling water is also best from a bottle that has just been opened since the cap causes the pressure from released CO₂ to build up, in turn preventing more CO₂ from being produced, thus preserving the carbonation.

“Italian” Dressing?

Italian dressing. Obviously you can’t find such a thing in Italy, exactly like you’ll hardly find anything called “Chinese food” in China. But it isn’t just the name that doesn’t exist, Italians don’t even know the concept of a (premixed) dressing that you can buy in a store.

The main reason why Italians don’t buy any bottled dressing is that there is only one really popular salad dressing – a simple mix of oil and vinegar, plus salt. Now, oil and vinegar don’t actually mix… and that is probably another reason why there is no “Italian dressing” in a bottle: it would look gross!

So, how does mixing of oil and vinegar work? They are applied separately; it’s recommended that vinegar and salt go on first (salt dissolves in vinegar, and doesn’t in oil – some people even premix salt and vinegar in a tablespoon before adding it to the salad), then after a quick toss olive oil is added on, just enough to lightly coat the greens and enhance their flavor.

Now, what kind of oil and vinegar? A light olive oil (e.g. a delicate extra-virgin from Tuscany or Liguria, or a less flavorful non extra-virgin olive oil) is generally preferred on delicate greens (such as lettuce). Vegetable oils can also be used. For stronger greens (such as arugula) a fruity and aromatic extra-virgin is instead recommended. As for the vinegar, regular red wine or white wine vinegars are the most common, but balsamic vinegar is becoming more and more popular. Balsamic vinegar originates in the regions surrounding the cities of Modena and Reggio Emilia. It’s now also made elsewhere, but the one produced in Modena and Reggio Emilia is certified as Protected Designation of Origin, and guaranteed to be made using traditional methods. As an alternative to vinegar, lemon or other citrus can be used to add acidity.

Instead of bottled dressing, households always have oil, vinegar, salt and pepper on the table as, generally speaking, people prefer to dress their own salad themselves. The same goes for restaurants and cafeterias – oil and vinegar are brought to the table whenever a salad is ordered and the waiters never ask what kind of dressing the customer would like.

Typical leafy greens used in Italian salads are lettuce and its variants (Romain, lamb’s lettuce or ‘soncino’), endive, spinach, arugula (a.k.a. rocket), radicchio , chicory, cabbage. Other vegetables commonly used are sliced tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers (with optional onions), fennel, any kinds of cooked and chilled beans, chilled boiled potatoes and green beans.

Italians love their salads, but they normally have them only as a side to the second course (which is normally meat or fish), or at most as an appetizer. Unlike in North America, salad is never served as a side to a pasta or rice dish. Lately, “big salads” (‘insalatone’) have become a popular lunch choice, they usually have some leafy greens with a combination or all of the following: corn, canned tuna, hard-boiled egg slices, ham, cheese dices (e.g. Fontina or Swiss). Big salads’ dressing is normally the usual oil and vinegar, or just oil.

There is absolutely no Caesar salad in Italy.

The Mystery of Bread

The smell of bread… Freshly baked bread has such an evocative fragrance. Italian bread, just like most artisan kinds of bread, is usually made of just yeast, flour, water, and salt.

The Chemistry

Yeast. The kind most commonly used is baker’s yeast, which is also used for brewing alcoholic beverages (in fact in Italian it’s called ‘lievito di birra’, beer leaven). Unlike sourdough (a symbiotic combination of a lactobacilli culture and yeasts that naturally develops when a mix of flour and water is left at room temperature for a certain amount of time, and where lactic acid is produced as a byproduct), baker’s yeast is a cultivated form of just yeast (Saccharomyces) and it’s preferred because not sour.

As part of the leavening process, the yeast eats the sugars contained in the flour and transforms them through an enzymatic process in dextrose and fructose, while producing carbon dioxide (CO₂) and alcohol. The CO₂ is responsible for the rising of the bread, but the fermentation itself and the caramelization of the sugars that occurs in the oven are responsible for the resulting flavor and smell. To lengthen the fermentation and increase the flavor, a starter (also called pre-ferment or ‘mother dough’) is often used. The classic Italian starter is called biga (a thick mixture of baker’s yeast, flour, and water that gets prepared ahead of time and then added to the fresh yeast). As an alternative, a portion of dough from a previous batch can be used.

Flour. Flour from several kinds of grains can be used (including rye, barley, corn), but Italian bread mostly uses high-gluten wheat flour. The gluten content is fundamental to give “structure” to the bread so that it holds its shape while rising and that prevents it from collapsing during the baking.

The salt is responsible not only for the taste but also for the color of the bread. Common table salt or sea salt is added near the beginning of the mixing process, but avoiding direct contact with the yeast. Tuscan bread is an exception where salt is completely absent.

Regular drinking water mediates between yeast and flour. The minerals naturally contained in Italian water also affect the bread’s flavor and texture.

The Cultural Significance

Now that we have the complex chemistry of bread out of the way, let’s talk about what bread means to the Italians.

Bread is very dear to the Italians; it’s so dear that it is synonymous of ‘good’ (a common Italian saying calls a good-natured person “good like bread”, ‘buona come il pane’). Bread is considered essential to every meal (except of course for meals which are made of bread, like pizza), so much that it traditionally represents the center of the banquet and every other food that is served with it is generally referred as ‘companatico’ (something that goes with bread). And since bread is a given in every meal, it’s free in restaurants (or, better, it’s included with service), and refilled as needed without charge.

Italians eat bread without any butter. As a result, people generally take one bun or bread slice from the basket where it’s served, place it directly on the tablecloth by their plate and eat it with hands, one bite-sized chunk at a time (biting off directly is instead a big no-no).

All Italian bread would probably be considered as ‘fancy’ in North America, there is, in fact, nothing like the standard day-to-day sandwich bread. The closest thing is called “pan carré”, French for ‘square bread’, a long-preservation preparation meant to be toasted, somewhat popular in Northern Italy, but that doesn’t compare with traditional Italian bread.

Bread used to be bought fresh every day at a bakery. And since bakeries used to be closed on Sundays (pretty much like everything else in Italy), on Saturday people would buy double amounts and accept to eat stale bread the next day. Now of course bread can also be bought in superstores, and many people freeze it and every day they thaw the desired amounts (if properly bagged and frozen when very fresh, bread remains almost unaltered for a few weeks).

Is there such a thing as Italian bread?

Not really. Bread in Italy comes in a big variety of shapes and kinds, from small rolls to big loaves, which vary across the peninsula. The most known kinds of Italian bread include:

“michetta” o “rosetta” (Lombardy): round shaped bun, with flat base and star incision. Completely empty inside because of the long leavening.
“biova” (Piedmont): slightly heavier than michetta because only partially empty and slightly denser.
“carasau” (Sardinia): a flatbread, extremely thin and crunchy.
“francese”, “francesino”: French-style bread (loaf or bun).
“ciabatta” (not ciabbata!), classic denser bun, rectangular shaped, used for instance to make “panini” (singular “panino” !), grilled sandwiches where the bread is cut horizontally and filled with one type of cold cut or ham and optionally cheese and roasted vegetables.
“filone”, “sfilatino”: similar to a baguette.

Special bread featuring the addition of other ingredients (from simple milk or oil to olives, raisins, or grapes) is also quite common. It has to be noted that the law imposes the use of the “Special Bread” label for any kinds of bread containing more than 4.5% of fat.

Focaccia (not foccacia!) can be considered a type of special bread containing olive oil. The most basic focaccia is simply sprinkled with coarse salt, but there are many variations (even a sweet one covered with sugar). The most famous focaccia comes from Liguria, and particularly the city of Recco (topped with Crescenza cheese).

Panettone is also a type of special bread, definitely the most representative sweet bread, a typical Christmas cake that originated in the city of Milan, but is common all throughout Italy (though usually only around the Christmas time). Panettone contains eggs, butter, sugar, raisins, and candied citrus peel and its complex preparation requires different stages of leavening.

A typical preparation that uses a slice of toasted bread as its base is the famous bruschetta (brus-‘ket-ta, not bru-‘shet-ta!). The most classic bruschetta is topped with diced tomatoes, garlic, onion and olive oil and originates in Central and Southern Italy.

Two other regional specialties (both from Emilia Romagna) are Piadina (a flatbread which is traditionally eaten with fresh creamy cheese and cold cuts) and ‘gnocco fritto’, fried dumpling which is also eaten with cold cuts or cheese. Both kinds of bread can also be served as desserts (usually with chocolate spreads, gnocco fritto can also be served with honey).

Finally, several preparations are based on stale bread, either diced and softened in milk or grated. One preparation typical of the eastern Alps is Canederli (though originated in Germany and Austria), bread dumplings usually containing cheese and smoked cured meat, served in broth or with melted butter.