A few days ago I had the honor of being nominated by Nami (@ Just One Cookbook) for the Seven Links Challenge. It consists of selecting seven of my existing posts based on as many given criteria and explaining the reasons behind the choices. So, here I go!
1. The most beautiful post
As my most “beautiful” post, I have chosen Risotto with Porcini Mushrooms. This is mostly because I like the picture, a lucky single shot taken on a trip to Italy. After this became my first recipe on Quatro Fromaggio, I continued posting more recipes and realized how hard food photography really is!
2. The most popular post
According to Google Analytics, the Formaggio Cheese post is the one that reached my highest number of views so far. Several people find this article while searching for a particular type of Italian cheese. Hopefully, it answers their questions!
3. The most controversial post
Pretty much every single article on Quatro Fromaggio has some level of controversy. The whole premise of this blog is to compare authentic Italian food to its many aberrations, and my role can’t be too accommodating towards the “offenders” 🙂 In the Pasta 101 article, however, the controversy is in the reference to the Atkins debate.
Pasta Names Explained has been called out as the most informative by commenters. This makes me really happy because of the effort that went into the preparation. The collection of the various pictures was the challenge. Since I didn’t want to buy all the different types of pasta at once, I came up with a system based on a home-made lightbox that I could carry with me and use to take pictures in almost identical conditions over time.
5. The post that was surprisingly successful
I didn’t think that Google would rank Pizzoccheri della Valtellina as high as it does. In fact, most people come across this page through the search engines. Pizzoccheri is a relatively unknown dish outside of Italy – most readers are probably Italians.
6. The post that did not get the attention it deserved
Possibly because I posted it when not many people knew about this blog, but Eating Vegetarian didn’t do as well as I hoped. My fiancée is a vegetarian (and the artist who painted the above picture), and I firmly believe in yummy vegetarian food where nobody would lament the lack of meat. Italian food often qualifies as such.
7. The post I am most proud of
The research work behind Rice Demystified was one of the most productive and satisfying for me. I quickly answered my own questions and I started producing the illustrations, starting from my own scans of real rice grains. I really enjoyed that 🙂
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And now to the part where I nominate 5 bloggers and pass the Seven Links Challenge on to them. I have chosen some that I have been following for quite some time, and that have been a great source of motivation and inspiration for me:
It has been one year already! I started this blog at the end of July 2010 out of sheer exasperation. I felt that Italian cuisine was too often completely misrepresented in North America. Not only was it not authentic (which is understandable this far away from Italy), it frequently tasted plain bad.
With many of its principles distorted, Italian food becomes a caricature of itself. It needs to have olives and sun-dried tomatoes; bread must be foccacia or have flour on it and be called ciabbata; tomato sauce, salami, olive oil, or a balsamic reduction must be involved; there need to be mountains of parmesan and mozza, along with a mix of 20 Mediterranean spices. If short of Italian ingredients, anything Spanish or Greek will be close enough: feta cheese, kalamata olives, even chorizo…
I understand that, just like American English has drifted from British English, Italian food in North America has evolved into its own genre. What I don’t understand is when the adjective “authentic” is still used. If you serve authentic Italian food, please:
Make sure your Italian dishes exist in Italy (there is no Alfredo sauce and Spaghetti with Meatballs is extinct!)
Check your recipes (whole garlic cloves have no business on any pizza!)
Spell-check your menu (once and for all: it’s ‘prosciutto’, not proscuitto, it’s ‘quattro formaggi’, not quatro fromaggio!)
Don’t say something is “Tuscan” just to make it sound more Italian (what is the point of serving Tuscan Chicken Pasta, when nowhere in Italy will you find chicken on any pasta?)
If you serve espresso, don’t feel that you have to fill up that little coffee cup! Half-full is fine – just make sure it’s creamy.
Over the course of the year, lots of discussions were had through comments, and a small but energetic group of friends has formed: Italians living abroad, Italians living in Italy, and foodies living all around the world. Thank you all – you are my source of motivation, and your feedback has been invaluable.
I also would like to thank my fiancée Candace – I owe her many of the considerations on the differences in culture between Italy and North America, and she is a fantastic editor! Thanks, Candace, also for being so patient with me as I got more and more obsessed with this project. I even wonder if this should still be called a blog… on many occasions, writing the articles has required me to do quite a bit of research. But it was fun, and I learned a lot from it.
Looking forward into year two, I am hoping to get the community even more involved. I would like this blog to become a hub for discussions around authentic Italian food and a reference for anyone interested in learning more about it. But for today, I’m just going to open a good bottle of ‘spumante’ and celebrate making it this far!
Italians like structure in the way they eat. To them, the balance between the different courses of the meal is as important as the balance between the ingredients of each dish. In Italy, eating is far more than nutrition, it’s a moment of aggregation where families, friends, colleagues get together, relax and participate in the dining ritual. This article describes a typical everyday meal (at home or in an informal restaurant) and compares it with the bigger and fancier meal reserved for special occasions (a wedding, for instance).
In Italy, even the most informal meals commonly include multiple courses. This doesn’t mean that people eat more food – the various courses are a way to break down the meal into different sections, add variety and create a progression. Appetizers and first courses come first because of their delicate flavors (and textures); second courses follow with their stronger elements; desserts, coffee, and liquors are reserved to end the meal. The subdivision into courses also introduces pauses, which in some cases are intentionally extended to give the diners the necessary time to rest their palate, and socialize.
In this article we will be referring to both lunch (“pranzo”) and supper (“cena”), as the mid-day meal and the evening meal. As for the early-day meal, please see the post on breakfast (“colazione”).
Everyday meals
Everyday meals generally only include a first course (“primo piatto” or simply “primo”) and a second course (“secondo piatto” or “secondo”), plus possibly some fruit (“frutta”) and coffee (“caffé”).
The first course is usually based on dry pasta, gnocchi, ravioli, or rice (“risotto”). First courses don’t need any sides and they are not accompanied by bread. Mostly during winter, and especially for dinner, the first course can take the form of a soup, which may contain pasta or rice or may be served with croutons (“crostini”).
The second course is centered on a protein – typically meat or fish, but also cheese or eggs. Second courses are normally served with one or more side dishes (“contorni”), such as salads or roasted vegetables. They are usually eaten with bread, polenta (boiled cornmeal), or boiled rice.
The structure of everyday meals may seem somewhat similar to North America, where it’s common to have soup or salad as a first course, a main course, and dessert. The difference is that the Italians put a lot more emphasis on the first course, so much so that the second course loses the title of ‘main’.
Formal meals
Italian formal meals always begin with a starter course (“antipasto”), and continue with one or more first courses, one or more second courses (meat or fish, sometimes interleaved with a lemon sorbet as a palate cleanser), a cheese course (“formaggio”), desserts, a fruit course, coffee, and liquors. One or more second courses may be replaced by a “piatto di mezzo” (a soufflé or a “torta salata”, similar to a quiche).
For starters, a selection of appetizers is a must. They may be in the form of pre-assembled platters, or, more informally, they can be brought to the table in serving dishes, or even presented in a self-service buffet (see the article on antipasto).
First courses have elaborate preparations and sometimes make use of expensive ingredients (e.g.: truffles, seafood). When more than one first course is served, the portions of each become smaller. In some cases, a sampler of primi containing 2 or 3 dishes on the same plate may be offered; this, however, is becoming more and more uncommon.
Second courses also have a refined presentation and sophisticated ingredients. With respect to North America, the meat portions are smaller to compensate for a filling first course. In restaurants, for some meat or fish dishes, a chef may plate each portion in front of the diners by working in a carving or plating station set up next to the dining table. If both a fish secondo and a meat secondo are served in the same meal, it’s customary to serve them in that order and to interleave a sorbet (usually lemon) as a palate-cleanser. If all second courses are based on meat, or if there is only one second course, then a sorbet may be served between first courses and second courses.
Formal meals often have an entire course dedicated to cheese, either in the form of pre-assembled samplers, or where a selection of cheeses is presented on serving trays. In some cases, aged cheeses are paired up with jams (especially figs and pears jams), aromatic honey (e.g.: chestnut tree honey), or mostarda.
Desserts are also a must in formal dining. In restaurants, a daily selection of cakes, pastries or tarts is often presented on a serving cart for each diner to choose from.
The fruit course may be prepared in a salad (called “macedonia”), and optionally served with ‘gelato’. In winter, a combination of dried fruit and fresh fruit might be offered.
Coffee is always served. In restaurants, it’s in the form of espresso; at home, it may be from a home-espresso machine or a ‘Moka’.
Liquors often conclude the meal because, like sweets, they quench the appetite. They are normally digestive bitters (“amari”). However, grappa, Sambuca, amaretto, nocino, and especially limoncello are also common.
Note that the aperitif (aperitivo) – an appetizer drink generally accompanied by a light snack – is not part of the courses as it’s usually had some time before the meal, possibly even in a different venue.
Bread and wine
In both informal and formal setups, bread is very important to the Italians (so important that any food that comes with bread is generically called “companatico”). Individual buns and sliced loaves may be served in a basket, or set directly on the table. Butter is not part of the tradition, though in some cases unsalted butter curls may still be served. Bread may be had as a snack before the primo – sometimes in the form of breadsticks (“grissini”) – and it always accompanies the second course. In informal setups, it’s acceptable, after the primo, to use a few bread chunks to wipe up any pasta sauce that may be left on the plate. This practice, called “scarpetta” (little-shoe) is however never used after eating risotto, as its cream (made of starch) is not technically a sauce.
Wine, somewhat common in everyday meals (especially for dinner), becomes mandatory in formal dining – and it must be of high quality. First courses, “piatti di mezzo” and fish courses are paired up with white wines or light reds. Meat-based second courses, instead, require stronger red wines. See the article on wine for more information.
Further Readings
For more information, check out 10 Facts About Italian Food, an interesting article on some of the less known misconceptions about Italian food.
More featured articles
An Italian in Canada – From the Food of Italy to “Italian Food”
Personal Space – Why Italians Seem to Require Less of it
Il Mercato – The Tradition of the Italian Street Market
A World of Eggs – How They Differ Between Italy and North America
Gorgonzola – The Italian Blue
The Italian Bar – A Licensed Coffee House for Every Time of the Day
If you are Italian, or if you have driven around Italy, you are probably familiar with “Autogrill” as a chain of restaurants that serve the highways all throughout the country.
But even if you are unaware of Autogrill, every time you travel you are actually exposed to the Autogrill Group, a catering giant that runs several licensed franchises (including Burger King, Pizza Hut, and Starbucks) in the airports, train stations and ports of over 40 countries worldwide (including USA, Canada, and Australia).
Even though the Autogrill Group is based in Italy, to most Italians “Autogrill” is just the generic name of the restaurants located on the highway – even of the ones that are run by the competition (e.g.: Chef Express, Ristop), or that are branded differently because of their size (e.g.: Ciao, Spizzico). And this despite the fact that Autogrill restaurants are nowadays common also in major city centers. The Autogrill name is so universal that in the rest of this article we will also use it as a synonym of highway restaurant.
Italians like Autogrill because it’s familiar and reliable, because it’s good value for money, and because it can be conveniently accessed without leaving the highway. This detail is particularly important, given that most Italian highways are toll roads and exiting them requires the drivers to go through the time-consuming pay booths. Foreigners like Autogrill because it involves very little interaction with (Italian speaking) staff, and because of the high quality of its food, especially compared to the greasy North American road-side restaurants.
The bridge-style Autogrill (above), from the inside.
All Autogrill are located in regular service stations. The smaller ones may consist of just a coffee bar and are generally only moderately busy. The larger Autogrill, and particularly the bridge-style ones (which go across the entire highway and are accessible from both travel directions), can instead attract large amounts of customers, especially around lunch and dinner time. They are structured for maximum efficiency and divided into three main sections:
A mini-supermarket with snacks and regional foods (such as olive oil, dried pasta, wine, cheese, cured meats), over-the-counter drugs, toiletries, batteries, newspapers and magazines; tobaccos and pre-paid phone cards can be purchased at the cashier.
A coffee bar which sells espresso drinks, pastries, and (often) grilled sandwiches (‘panini’, in Italian, plural of ‘panino’), such as Camogli (made with focaccia, Italian ham and swiss), Rustico (with pancetta, smoked provolone and tomatoes) and Fattoria (with speck and fontina cheese).
A separate cafeteria-style restaurant.
The restaurant is, in its turn, divided into two sections: the actual self-service (which ends at the cashier), and a sitting area where the purchased meal can be consumed.
A meal for two: penne all’arrabbiata, linguine al pesto, cheese plate, red wine, sparkling water, and bread.
When entering the self-service, each diner takes a tray and loads it with what they prefer. Drinks (including beer and wine) are directly available for pickup, and so is a fairly large selection of cold dishes (appetizers, sides, fresh and aged cheeses, freshly baked bread, fruit, and desserts). Hot courses are instead plated to order by an attendant. Most Autogrills offer a choice of two or three first courses (e.g.: pasta and risotti) and a couple of second courses (e.g.: meat and fish). After filling the tray, the customer brings it to the cashier who often offers to add an espresso to the bill (the coffee is meant to be had at the bar after the meal). The sitting area is basic but comfortable. The tables are kept clean by staff (though racks for used trays are provided to the customers), dressing and condiments (oil and vinegar, salt and pepper) are available, as well as cutlery and additional napkins. Occasionally, microwaves ovens for re-heating are also provided; if they are missing, plastic heat-keeper domes may be available to help keep plates warm.
In conclusion, Autogrill is dear to the Italians and very much part of their collective imaginary. Every aspect of this Italian icon reflects the spirit of Italy, from the mini-supermarket that resembles the neighborhood shop, to the traditional coffee bar, to the family-style food served in the cafeteria. For those rushing through Italy in their first European trip, Autogrill can give a pretty good snapshot of Italy and of the Italians and shouldn’t be missed.
Known in North America by the French name apéritif, an aperitivo is a drink meant to be had before the meal as an appetizer. To this purpose, the apertitivo is usually a moderately alcoholic cocktail based on vermouth, bitters or white wine. Non-alcoholic versions also exist.
Even though the aperitivo is technically a starter to the meal (the word comes from the Latin verb ‘aperire’, to open), Italians usually have it well before lunch or dinner, accompanied by a snack. Because of this, the aperitivo often refers to the whole experience of drink plus food (as Italians say: “fare l’aperitivo”, do the aperitif), with the actual purpose of quenching the appetite while waiting for a late meal.
As described in the article on breakfast, in Italy bars double as coffee shops and are often part of people’s daily routine. And in the bars of Milan and other north Italian cities, the evening aperitivo has evolved into its own tradition. Starting at around 6 pm (which is at least one hour before restaurants open) and continuing until 8 or 9 pm, most bars offer a lot more than peanuts and chips to accompany their drinks. For a slight surcharge on the aperitivo drink, a complimentary buffet of appetizers is commonly offered.
The best aperitivo venues overflow with customers attracted by their luscious buffets and compete in providing the best ambiance and quality. They are especially popular as social hubs, typically for after-work gatherings, while waiting for dinner time. Even though the buffets can be very tempting, generally people try not to take advantage and limit themselves to one or two small appetizer plates. However, aperitivo spots are also appreciated by students and younger crowds in general, which may help themselves more generously and even decide to have more than one round of drinks and skip dinner altogether.
As for the actual drink, all of the standard “pre-dinner” cocktails are served. These include:
Dry white wine, especially the sparkling Prosecco (see the article on wine);
Martini, which in Italy is just straight vermouth on the rocks (from the historical brand Martini e Rossi), as opposed to North American Martini – a cocktail based on gin or vodka;
Classic long-drinks, such as gin and tonic, rum and coke (also called Cuba Libre), Americano (gin and sweet red vermouth).
But the Italians favorites are bitters-based, they include:
Straight Campari (25% alcohol, created in 1860) or Aperol (11%, created in 1919), both served on ice and possibly topped up with soda water;
Spritz (Aperol or Campari, sparkling wine and soda water), which originated in the North East of Italy.
It has to be noted that none of the alcoholic aperitivo drinks are particularly strong. In North America they would all be considered “girly” drinks, also because of their bright colors. Italians enjoy them as appetizers, leaving red wine and beer to accompany dinner, and stronger liquors for later in the night.
Aperitivo drinks can even be entirely non-alcoholic and are quite popular in the morning before lunch. The most common are ‘San Pellegrino Bitter’ (more recently commercialized as ‘Sanbittèr’) and ‘Crodino’, both of which contain herb extracts that give them a bitter aftertaste. They are sold in small individual glass bottles (100 ml) and served on ice with a slice of lemon or orange, or as part of juice-based cocktails.
Pre-made low-alcohol aperitivo cocktails also exist and can be bought in single-dose glass bottles. The most important are Camparisoda (10%, created in 1932) and Aperol Soda (3%).
Appetizer display at Spritz bar in Milan-Navigli.
As for the accompanying appetizers, other than the typical potato chips and toasted peanuts, it’s common to have olives, savory tarts, bruschette, pasta salads, pizzette. Also quite standard are cold cuts (including prosciutto, mortadella, salame), mozzarella and tomatoes, grilled vegetables, cheese bites (e.g.: Parmigiano slivers, smoked scamorza), or even generous blocks of spreadable cheese (e.g.: gorgonzola or brie), and a selection of breads (small buns and sliced loaves). More rarely deli appetizers are featured, for instance ‘insalata di mare’ (seafood salad, containing boiled octopus, squid, and shrimp in olive oil and lemon), ‘insalata russa’ (Russian salad, containing diced boiled potatoes, peas, carrots, in mayonnaise).
More appetizers at “Spritz” bar.
Occasionally, warm appetizers and even actual hot courses are offered in the classic buffet chafing dishes, heated with alcohol burners. Example include first courses that don’t need to be freshly made (e.g.: butter and sage tortellini, gnocchi with cheese sauce, baked pasta), second courses (e.g.: meat stews), and sides (e.g.: roasted potatoes or polenta).
Half-wheel of Parmigiano and focaccia slices, also in a Milan bar.
Every appetizer is served in bite-size portions meant to be eaten directly at the buffet or put on a small disposable plate and taken to the table. Plastic forks and knives are usually provided, though some places limit their customers to using toothpicks and serving spoons.
Aglio (pronounced ‘ah-llyo’), Olio e Peperoncino (Garlic, Oil and Chili Pepper) is one of the simplest and most popular Italian pasta sauces, and one of the most delicious. Its simplicity is unmatched for showcasing perfectly cooked, high-quality spaghetti, the cut of pasta that it best goes with. Aglio, Olio e Peperoncino is really more of a pasta dressing, rather than an actual sauce. And it’s perfect for when there is no time to make a sauce, for a midnight snack, or for unexpected guests.
Italian cuisine is based on quality – the more a dish is simple, the more it requires the best ingredients. And this is definitely the case with Spaghetti Aglio, Olio e Peperoncino.
Let’s start with the pasta: a typical serving of 70-80 grams per person of dried durum semolina spaghetti from a quality Italian brand (e.g.: Voiello, De Cecco, Barilla). It’s possible to use another cut of pasta – spaghetti could be replaced with linguine, but that’s pretty much as far as an Italian would push it. Definitely, short pasta wouldn’t be appropriate, and neither would egg noodles.
Even by sticking to spaghetti, most Italians have a preference of what thickness best suits this dish. Every brand has its own “units”, for instance in my family we’ve always preferred the thicker Barilla #7 (‘Spaghettoni’), whereas the most popular kind is the thinner #5.
Another fundamental choice that Italians make is whether or not to break the spaghetti in half before boiling them. Traditionally, pasta should never be cut – not before cooking it and especially never after it has been dished out. However, boiling 10 inch long noodles requires a particularly tall pot and breaking them in half may be practical.
As for the oil, extra virgin olive oil is a must for this dish. Other than being a vessel on which to carry the flavor of the pasta and the spiciness of the chilies, extra virgin olive oil brings its distinct aroma, which perfectly complements them.
The third and last ingredient, chili pepper, tops up the flavor profile with the simplest cooking trick: adding some heat! Any kind of chilies can be used, from a fresh cayenne pepper to dried flakes. It’s only important to get the desired amount of spiciness, which is usually medium-hot.
Spaghetti Aglio, Olio e Peperoncino
Yield: 2 servings
Total Time: 15 minutes
Prep Time: 3 minutes
Cook Time: 12 minutes
Ingredients
150 g high quality dried spaghetti
4 garlic cloves, peeled and crushed
2 tablespoons extra virgin olive oil
1 teaspoon dried chili flakes (or 1 fresh cayenne pepper*)
(optional) 2 tablespoons of freshly grated Parmigiano Reggiano
In a small pan, warm up the olive oil at medium heat for a minute.
Add the crushed garlic and let it fry until it turns golden-brown (fig. 2). *If using a fresh cayenne pepper, it should be seeded and roasted along with the garlic and then also removed.
Turn off the heat, discard the garlic and add the chili flakes (fig. 3).
As soon as the pasta is cooked "al dente", drain it in a colander and toss it back in the empty pot.
Pour in the garlic chili oil, quickly stir and dish the pasta into serving bowls.
If desired, add the grated Parmigiano Reggiano and serve immediately.
In the Pasta 101 article we went through the different types of pasta and the Italian traditions around it. Let’s now talk some more on how to cook pasta, and particularly dry pasta (‘pastasciutta’).
Let’s start with quantities. How much is one serving of pasta? It depends on the yield. Raw dried pasta absorbs plenty of water as it cooks, easily doubling in weight. Uncooked fresh pasta is instead already moist and only gains moderate weight with cooking.
In Italy, the typical serving per person (of uncooked pasta) is:
70-80g, for regular dried durum semolina pasta (‘pasta di semola di grano duro’);
50-60g, for for dried egg noodles (‘pasta all’uovo’);
80-100g, for fresh pasta (‘pasta fresca’).
60g of dried tortiglioni (left) turn into 120g when cooked (right).
60g of egg fettuccine (left) turn into 140g when cooked (right).
In any case, these amounts are very contained with respect to North American standards. This is because pasta is usually just the first course of a meal, and it’s served without a side and never with bread. The amounts of pasta get even smaller when the sauce that is going to be used is particularly rich.
Let’s now talk about the cooking process. Most recipes say the pasta should be boiled in abundant salty water. But what does that mean? How abundant is ‘abundant’ and how salty is ‘salty’? The correct proportions are:
10g of salt for every liter of water (½ Tbsp of salt for 4 cups of water), and
at least 1 liter of water for every 100g of pasta (3 ½ oz of pasta).
It’s important to note that, despite common misconceptions, the amount of salt is not proportional to the amount of pasta! It’s proportional to the amount of water used. For example, when making pasta for 4 people (250g), it’s necessary to have at least 2.5 liters of water; and, for 2.5 liters of water, it’s necessary to have 2 tablespoons of salt. This may seem like a lot of salt, but the pasta will retain only a relatively small amount of it; the rest of the salt will stay in the water. Besides, salty water also increases the temperature at which the starches gelatinize, making the pasta less likely to stick to itself. By the way, adding table salt at the end on the cooked pasta is not equivalent to boiling the pasta in salty water, as it wouldn’t be able to reach the pasta’s core.
The best way to get the water ready for cooking pasta is to put the pot with unsalted tap water on the stove at maximum heat, covered with a lid. When the water reaches a full boil, the salt is added and should dissolve almost immediately in a burst of bubbles. While dissolving, the salt absorbs energy causing the boil to be interrupted, but only momentarily. The reason why it’s not recommended to put the salt right away in the cold water is that it will dissolve more slowly, resting on the bottom of the pot and, over time, causing some corrosion. Rock salt is normally used in Italy because it is less likely to lump together and because it’s cheaper.
When the salty water is fully boiling, the lid has to be removed and needs to stay off while cooking the pasta (or the water will start foaming and spill over). Even without the lid, the water should maintain a full boil. This is very important because it guarantees a constant temperature (around 100°C), necessary to cook pasta properly. At lower temperatures, the pasta would take longer to cook, absorb more water and become gummy. This unfortunately is unavoidable at high altitudes, for instance at 3000m water boils at 90°C. While it’s true that salt increases the boiling temperature, at typical concentrations it only increases it by 0.17°C, which is absolutely negligible.
It’s now time to “throw” in the pasta (from the Italian saying: ‘buttare la pasta’). Even though the bubbling movement of plenty of fully boiling and salty water is sufficient to keep the pasta separate and cook uniformly, it’s still important to stir the pasta for the first minute of cooking. Some sources suggest adding olive oil to the water to prevent sticking – this is generally unnecessary and actually not recommended as the pasta will be coated with grease and this will prevent the sauce from sticking to it.
How long does the pasta need to cook? For packed dried pasta, what’s written on the box (e.g. ‘cottura 10 minuti’) is a very good indication, starting the timer at the moment when the pasta is added to the boiling water. At ideal conditions (fully boiling water at low altitudes), the time given on the box produces “al dente” pasta, which is still moderately firm and offers some resistance to the bite. Even Italians may find this slightly undercooked, but it’s especially recommended for all those recipes that require the pasta to be tossed back in the pan along with the sauce (adding a couple of minutes to the cooking time). Fresh pasta cooks much more quickly than dried pasta (in the order of a few minutes, versus about 10). In any case, it’s a good idea to taste the pasta before or at its cooking time to ensure it’s cooked properly.
As soon as the pasta is ready, it has to be rapidly drained in a colander, making sure to leave a small amount of the cooking water for extra moisture and also to help the sauce adhere to the pasta thanks to the dissolved starch. Pasta boilers with embedded colanders (where the pasta cooks directly into a colander which fits completely within the pot) can be very practical, but they are regularly used only in professional kitchens.
More featured articles
An Italian in Canada – From the Food of Italy to “Italian Food”
Personal Space – Why Italians Seem to Require Less of it
Il Mercato – The Tradition of the Italian Street Market
A World of Eggs – How They Differ Between Italy and North America
Gorgonzola – The Italian Blue
The Italian Bar – A Licensed Coffee House for Every Time of the Day
Along with wine and pasta, olive oil is one of the food items Italy is most known for. Olive oil is the only oil extracted from the actual fruit, as opposed to grains or nuts, and is one of the most ancient manufactured foods.
The production of olive oil started over 5000 years ago in the Mediterranean region, where the olive tree is native. Over time, the production technology has evolved, but the highest quality olive oil is still produced according to the same principles through a process called ‘cold press’. The harvested mature olives, along with their pits, are crushed into a paste, which is then pressed (or nowadays centrifuged) to squeeze out the oil. The resulting product is fruity and aromatic, naturally low in free fatty acids (more on this later in this article), and has high nutritional value, thanks to a high content of vitamin E and other antioxidants. Because of the limited yield of this method, cold press olive oil has a relatively high market cost. As a result, extra virgin oil is normally enjoyed raw as a condiment, more than for cooking, also because of its relatively low smoke point (the temperature at which an oil starts smoking and burning, see the table below).
Smoke points (°C)
When the oil resulting from the cold press method has high acidity levels or other organoleptic defects, it can be refined using a chemical process. Since the process also eliminates part of the phenols and the vitamins, the resulting product has a more neutral flavor and is considered of lower quality from a nutritional point of view. However, refined oil has a higher smoke point, which, combined with a less intense flavor and lower prices, makes refined olive oil the preferred choice for deep frying and sautéing.
With the residues left after the cold press operation, which are called pomace, more oil is extracted by the use of heat and solvents. This “second-squeezing” yields what is called pomace olive oil, which is generally not suitable for human consumption unless mixed with higher quality oils.
As per official European Union regulations, olive oil can have the following denominations:
Oils extracted using purely mechanical means:
‘Olio Extra Vergine di Oliva’ (Extra Virgin Olive Oil), if the percentage of free fatty acids is lower than 0.8%.
‘Olio Vergine di Oliva’ (Virgin Olive Oil), if the percentage of free fatty acids is lower than 2%.
Oils extracted with mechanical means and then chemically refined:
‘Olio di Oliva’ (Olive Oil), obtained with a combination of refined and virgin olive oils.
Oils extracted from pomace using heat and solvents:
‘Olio di Sansa di Olive’ (Pomace Olive Oil), obtained by mixing refined pomace oil and virgin olive oils.
Despite the substantial use of butter in northern Italian cuisine, olive oil is the Italian condiment of choice and it literally defines the cuisine of central and southern Italy. Along the coasts, olive trees are a constant part of the scenery and the production of olives and of olive oil is a central part of the economy (along with Spain, Italy is one of the largest producers, consumers, and exporters of olive oil).
Unlike in North America, where olive oil is very much an elegant aliment used sparingly (olive oil tasting classes are even held), in Italy olive oil is an everyday choice and a very prominent ingredient. Combined with vinegar, it constitutes the most common Italian dressing. On salads, other vegetable oils are also used (e.g. corn oil, sunflower oil) – especially on the more delicate greens – but olive oil is overall the most popular. A drizzle of olive oil is often added on pizza (right before serving, also in its spicy version flavored with chilies) and on some soups (as a finishing touch and not stirred in). Raw olive oil is also one of the main components in many Mediterranean appetizers, including ‘Caprese salad’, ‘bruschetta’ and ‘panzanella’, and used in ‘sottoli’, oil-preserved vegetables and fish in jars.
Olive oil is also used in the preparation of countless Italian dishes. For instance, it is central in the very commonly used ‘soffritto’ (sautéed onion, celery, and carrot), which a lot of dishes are based upon (e.g.: Bolognese sauce, most stews, and several soups). In baking, olive oil is used in specialty bread and focacce. With some exceptions, olive oil is generally not used to make cakes or desserts or used to fry anything sweet (where animal fat or other vegetable oils are preferred for their flavor).
Contrary to popular belief, olive oil is also widely used for deep-frying, especially the less pricey “refined” olive oil (which also features a lower smoke point). Certain preparations specifically rely on the contribution to the flavor that olive oil frying brings (for instance ‘Melanzane alla Parmigiana’ -eggplant parmigiana-). Other vegetable oils are also used for frying (e.g.: peanut oil, sunflower oil, corn oil). But certainly not Canola!
Canola oil is extracted from the seeds of a particular breed of rapeseed (‘colza’ in Italian, scientific name: Brassica napus) which was artificially created in Canada in the ’70s. Natural rapeseed oil is considered inedible for humans because of its flavor and its content of erucic acid (which is mildly toxic). With Canola oil, instead, a much lower content of erucic acid was obtained, as well as better nutritional values and a more neutral flavor. The name ‘Canola’ (which stands for “Canadian oil, low acid”) was chosen to commercially identify the new product and dissociate it from rapeseed oil. In the ’90s, genetically engineered Canola capable to withstand certain types of herbicides was introduced. Not without controversies, this variety of Canola became the standard in North America.
Canola oil is exclusively produced in the United States and Canada, with only small amounts exported (mostly to Mexico and China). Canola oil is virtually absent from Europe where it only exists in its original form (rapeseed) and is used as animal feed and as a source for biodiesel. Despite the North American food organizations describing its properties as remarkable, Europeans are as suspicious of Canola as they are of any genetically modified products (as reflected in the article on the Italian Wikipedia).
Italians in North America strongly dislike Canola oil and find it particularly off-putting as frying oil because of its distinct flavor and smell. Given that refined olive oil is hard to find in North America, foodies have to resort to different oils for deep-frying, or accept that they have to use the more pricey extra virgin oil, and monitor its temperature to avoid reaching its (lower) smoke point.
Aside from their different properties, are some oils healthier than others? All vegetable oils are 100% fat and provide 120 calories per tablespoon, but cooking oils can be quite different from one another. To appreciate these differences, we need to put on our lab coats. In nature, fats and oils are mostly made of one particular kind of lipids: triglycerides, a stable combination of 3 fatty acids and 1 molecule of glycerol. Small amounts of free, unbound, fatty acids are also naturally present (their percentage increases as the oil deteriorates). Since free fatty acids are unstable polarized molecules, they oxidize and cause the oil to go rancid.
Lipids, in general, can be subdivided into two main categories based on their hydrogen content:
Saturated fats accommodate the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms. Saturation causes the fatty acids to be perfectly straight and this allows them to fit tightly one alongside the other. Because of this, saturated fats are usually solid at room temperature and are chemically quite stable – they naturally resist oxidation and have a relatively long shelf life. However, studies show that saturated fats are linked to high cholesterol and may cause heart diseases. Most saturated fats are of animal origin (e.g.: butter, cream, lard), but highly saturated molecules are also contained in tropical oils (e.g.: coconut oil).
Unsaturated fats contain a certain number of double bonds between carbon atoms, and consequently fewer hydrogen atoms. In unsaturated fats, the lack of symmetry causes the fatty acids to bend into more irregularly shaped molecules. As a result, unsaturated fats are generally liquid at room temperature and they are more subject to oxidation (to be preserved, they need to be kept away from light and heat). There is some evidence that unsaturated fats help lower blood cholesterol levels. Particularly, monounsaturated fatty acids (those where there is only one double-bond) seem to selectively lower only low-density lipoproteins levels while keeping high-density lipoproteins levels intact (the so-called “good cholesterol”). Monounsaturated fats are also preferred for frying as polyunsaturated oils tend to break down more easily at high temperatures. Canola, olive, and peanut oil are all classified as monounsaturated fats. Corn, soybean, sunflower oils are instead mostly polyunsaturated.
Finally, here is a diagram that shows the proportions of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the most common cooking oils (data from “Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004) – page 800″).
Cooking oils classification
Even though Canola oil has the lowest percentage of saturated fats, some regard olive oil as the healthiest cooking oil because of its higher percentage of monounsaturated fats. However, the percentage of saturated fats is comparably low in both oils, leaving the ultimate choice to flavor and personal preference.
For a blog that talks about Italian food compared to its North American counterpart, milk is probably one of the less obvious choices of topics. But if cow milk is similar, how milk differs as a product and how Italians and North Americans look at it can be quite interesting. For instance, it is perfectly normal for Italians to buy fresh milk with a shelf life of 2 days, or meant to be stored unrefrigerated for months before consumption.
Before we venture ourselves into the different preservation techniques, let’s talk for a moment about the relationship between Italians and milk. Italians like fresh milk just as much as North Americans do, but research shows that its consumption as a drink is less in Italian adults. A glass of milk isn’t commonly available in coffee bars and especially in restaurants because Italians don’t have milk with their meals. Flavored milk is also quite uncommon in Italy – chocolate milk does exist, but is only meant for young children (and is not as dense as the North American one). The consumption of milk-derived products, such as cheese, is instead higher in Italy.
Flavor-wise, Italian milk can taste quite different from the North American one. Flavor largely depends on how the cows are fed. For instance, a prevalently dry hay diet produces a mildly cheesy aroma, while lush pasturage produces sweeter flavors, but also barnyard indoles(3). Homogenization and pasteurization, which are nowadays standard for almost all milk, also affect the flavor.
Homogenization is a treatment developed in France around 1900 to prevent milk cream from rising to the top. The homogenization process breaks down the fat globules into smaller ones (from 4 μm to 1 μm). Caseine particles form a coating around the fat globules and this weighs them down and interferes with their ability to clump, keeping them evenly dispersed in the milk. The structural changes introduced by homogenization cause the milk to taste blander, but also feel creamier, and appear whiter(3).
The use of heat as a way to sanitize milk has been documented since the 1820s, but it took until the beginning of the 20th century for milk pasteurization to be regulated and required by the governments(3). Raw unpasteurized milk can, in fact, be quite harmful, as it has a relatively high chance to become infected with dangerous bacteria including salmonella and listeria. Nowadays, raw milk is illegal in Canada, whereas in Italy and in the U.S. its commercialization is restricted to authorized farms (which must be frequently inspected) that can only sell directly to the public within their premises.
The effects of thermal processing on milk vary based on its intensity and provide different levels of sanitation, shelf life extension, and side-effects on flavor and nutritional values. The following treatments are considered standard(2):
Thermalization: 20 seconds at ~65°C. The process kills many vegetative organisms and bacteria that produce enzymes that eventually cause milk deterioration. In the dairy industry, milk is often thermalized before undergoing further processing. Flavor and nutritional properties are unaltered.
Low pasteurization: 30 minutes at 63°C, or 15 seconds at 72°C. The latter is referred to as Flash Pasteurization or HTST (high temperature, short-time) and is considered the pasteurization standard for milk. It represents the minimum requirement by law in many countries (including Italy, the U.S., and Canada). Low pasteurized milk is safe to drink because all yeasts, molds, and pathogen bacteria have been killed. However, bacterial spores and some enzymes are preserved. Even if refrigerated, shelf life is limited to 1 or 2 weeks (depending on the milk’s “keeping qualities”). At strict HTST intensity, the flavor is almost unaltered and so are the nutritional properties. The slightly higher time and temperature (20 seconds at 75°C) required by homogenized milk are however sufficient to introduce small alterations.
High pasteurization: 20 seconds at 85-100°C. This process, which essentially consists of a short boiling, kills all vegetative organisms and deactivates most enzymes, although still doesn’t affect bacterial spores. High pasteurized milk has a longer shelf life but is more vulnerable to post-processing contamination because the higher temperatures also eliminate the bacterial growth inhibitors. As a result, this type of pasteurization is usually operated on the bottled product. The milk serum starts to denature and a “cooked” flavor develops. The nutritional properties are slightly reduced because of a loss of vitamin C.
Sterilization: 30 minutes at 110°C (prolonged boiling), or Ultra-High Temperature processes (UHT) ranging between 30 seconds at 130°C, and 1 second at 145°C. UHT milk (called “ultrapasteurized” in the United States) is preferred over milk sterilized by prolonged boiling because of the more limited browning and a better flavor. Shelf life is generally between 3 and 6 months, unrefrigerated. Once opened, it only lasts for 3-4 days at 4°C because natural bacteria inhibitors have been destroyed by the heating process. The nutritional value of UHT milk is reduced, but it is still a great source of essential nutrients such as calcium and proteins. UHT milk is particularly useful in all cases where transportation or storage of fresh milk is impossible, as well as for all uses that call for boiled milk. UHT milk is very common in Italy, where it represents almost 50% of the entire milk consumption, Italians are mostly used to its flavor and some even prefer it over fresh milk. North America, instead, resists the introduction of UHT because of its flavor and because it’s deemed not acceptable that milk can be stored unrefrigerated.
In recent years, the milk industry has devised an alternative to UHT which is also capable of extending shelf life, still without using preservatives. Through a process called “microfiltration”, between 99.0 and 99.9% of bacterial cells (including most spores) are removed by using ceramic membranes with pore sizes of about 1 μm(2). Since the fat globules are also about 1 μm in diameter, before microfiltration the milk’s cream is separated, sterilized using a regular UHT treatment, and then added back. Microfiltered milk is nutritionally equivalent to regular pasteurized milk, but with a longer shelf life of up to 3-4 weeks, if properly refrigerated. Flavor-wise, it’s considered similar to regular pasteurized milk, but with a creamier texture.
Under the same storage temperatures, milk’s shelf life depends on its “keeping quality”, which derives from the quality of the raw milk, the type of pasteurization, and the level of post-processing contamination(1). Keeping quality varies from country to country based on shelf life demand. In Italy, an expiry date of only a few days in the future is considered acceptable for milk, since it’s quite common to buy fresh ailments daily. In North America, a minimum of 2 weeks is generally the requirement.
Because of the shorter shelf life of fresh milk, Italian milk is sold almost exclusively in 1-liter containers. UHT milk is also sold in 1-liter containers because of its limited expiry time once opened. North American milk instead supports larger formats up to 4 liters, or 1 gallon (in the U.S.).
Another important difference between Italian and North American milk is in the use of “fortification”. In Canada and the US, by law, vitamin A (a fat-soluble vitamin) is added to all skimmed milk to compensate for the amount that was removed when the milk was skimmed. Milk is also fortified with vitamin D, as regulated by law, to compensate for the lack of exposure of the cattle to direct sunlight. Italian milk has no additives.
Finally, as a summary of the differences here is a comparison table.
North American Milk
Italian Milk
Percentages of fat available
• Whole (3.5% to 3.8%, called Homogenized in Canada).
• 2% or “Reduced fat”.
• 1% or “Low-fat”.
• Semi-skimmed 1.8% (not available in Canada).
• Skimmed (less than 0.5%).
• Whole (3.5% fat min).
• Partly skimmed (1.5% to 1.8%).
• Skimmed (less than 0.3%).
Retail sizes
Containers up to 1 gallon (4 liters in Canada).
Containers usually only up to 1 liter.
Fortification
Vitamins A added to all skimmed milk. Vitamin D added to all milk.
No vitamins added – vitamins are not even mentioned in the nutritional info.
Types of sanitation
• Raw milk – illegal in Canada, rare in the U.S.
• Pasteurized: 2+ weeks shelf life at 4°C max.
• Microfiltered pasteurized – not very common. 3-4 weeks shelf life at 4°C max.
• Long preservation milk (UHT) – rarely available. Over 3 months shelf life at room temperature.
• Raw milk legal if sold on the premises from the producer.
• Pasteurized milk(*) or Fresh Pasteurized milk(**): 6 days shelf life at 4°C max.
• Microfiltered pasteurized milk. 2-3 weeks shelf life at 4°C max.
• Long preservation milk (UHT). Over 3 months shelf life at room temperature.
(*) Milk proteins at least 11% of the total proteins. (**) Pasteurization has to occur within 48 hrs from milking. Milk proteins at least 14% of the total (when over 15.5%, can be labeled “High Quality”).
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The research work behind Rice Demystified was one of the most productive and satisfying for me. I quickly answered my own questions and I started producing the illustrations, starting from my own scans of real rice grains. I really enjoyed that 🙂
