Table service, the customer experience in restaurants, can be radically different between Italy and Canada. Most of my considerations can probably apply to all of North America, but in this article, I will be referring specifically to my Canadian experience.
Guest and host
In Canada, the ideal customer’s expectation of good service is to be treated like a guest at a friend’s house. When successful, the relationship between host and guest is warm and friendly. The restaurant staff’s goal is to make their guests feel at home by making themselves constantly available, should the customers need anything.
At the end of the meal, in return for the many courtesies, the guest leaves a tip according to a tradition designed to reward good service with an act of generosity.
Customer and patron
In Italy, when dining in, a service charge (usually 10%) is automatically added to the bill. It represents an actual fee, not a gratuity, explicitly named in the cheque as the cost of cover and service (‘coperto e servizio’). The extra charge is meant to account for the rental of clean tableware and linens, as well as (part of) the waiters’ wages.
The relationship between customer and waiter is therefore quite business-like: the waiter takes the order, serves the food, and the customer pays for the service. Because of this, Italians don’t have a problem with calling the waiter when they need it – they know it’s the waiter’s responsibility to assist. As a result, the waiters don’t need to constantly check on the tables.
Avoiding culture clash
Which way is better? The friendly exchange of courtesies or the contract? Each of them is the norm in their respective countries, and whether you prefer one or the other likely depends on where you were raised. The different type of customer service, however, can become problematic when the two cultures mix.
What should Italians expect when traveling to Canada? They will be surprised by how friendly the service is. They should not mind the many interruptions throughout the meal – waiters will offer free water, constantly re-filling the glasses, and will periodically check if the guests are liking the food (when asked, guests should just say the food is good unless really they don’t like it and want to send it back). At the end of the meal, they shouldn’t be surprised to have the cheque automatically brought to them without asking (something that would be considered rude in Italy, like a way to ask them to leave). The bill is generally left *face down* on the table for a reason, it’s perfectly fine to ignore it until ready to pay, before leaving.
However, tipping is supposed to be proportional to the quality of the service and, in its essence, optional. Practically, though, since waiters are often paid minimum wage, it translates into paying the server an expected percentage (nowadays, 15% and up). Not leaving a tip, or leaving a tip that is substantially lower than what is customary, is equal to making the harsh statement that the waiter can’t do their job. Since Canadians hate to make harsh statements, they will always leave a tip, and will just avoid restaurants where service is poor.
What should Canadians expect, then, when traveling to Italy? They should expect it to be a bit rough, but they should try to focus on the food and keep in mind that, as they pay for service, they have the right to demand attention if it’s not given to them (the Italians even have a saying: ‘chi spende pretende!’, those who spend demand!). Just like on an airplane they have the right to ask for an extra pillow if they so wish. Since it’s considered rude in Italy for the restaurant to talk about money when people are still seated at the table, at the end of the meal Canadians should expect to have to ask for the cheque. In fact, the Italians even have a special “scribbly” way of waving when calling for it!
In Italy, the waiter is, fundamentally, the connection between the customer and the food. If the food meets the client’s expectations, and the waiter brings the food to the client, then the waiter meets the obligation implicit with his role. The waiter can still exceed expectations, for instance when they are particularly knowledgeable about the food, or when particularly attentive to the customers, and this can certainly increase the image of the restaurant. In many cases, however, the service in restaurants just meets minimum expectations. Those restaurants can still be highly successful, provided that their food is highly regarded. It’s a matter of offer and demand – but on the market of good food.
Finally, Italian restaurant owners in Canada have to keep in mind that the expectations are different than back home. While authentic Italian food is generally highly appreciated – the Italian standards of customer service are generally highly despised. No matter how good the food is, if customer service is not up to Canadian standards, the restaurant can very rapidly build a negative image, and its success can be severely hampered.
Pasticcini are exquisite Italian fine pastries which have been perfected over the centuries to achieve the best flavors, textures, and fragrances. In the Italian tradition, assorted pasticcini are served as a dessert, as a treat to accompany coffee, tea, or hot chocolate, or as a cake alternative for celebrations and other special occasions (in which case they are usually accompanied with ‘spumante’, the Italian sparkling wine).
The word ‘pasticcino’ is a diminutive of ‘pasticcio’, which in turn derives from Vulgar Latin pasticium, a dish made by mixing various ingredients, mostly wrapped in dough (‘pasta’).
A pastry shop display.
Pasticcini can be found in two sizes: standard (2-3″ in diameter) and mignon (1-2″). The latter has become increasingly popular thanks to its sampling size, a definite plus, given the great variety of pasticcini.
Since fine pastries are difficult and time-consuming to make at home (especially if a variety of kinds is desired), Italians prefer to buy them fresh in a ‘pasticceria’ (pastry shop). Although some bakeries also sell pasticcini, most pastry shops are independent specialized stores, have extended opening hours (they’re often open on Sunday mornings, for any last minute pastry pickup), and sometimes even double as coffee bars.
A small tray of paste da tè: chocolate and pistachio shortbreads, and ‘Baci di Dama’ (Ladies’ Kisses), a traditional Piedmontese cookie made of two crumbly hazelnut or almond halves held together with a layer of dark chocolate.
Along with pasticcini, pasticcerie often also sell shortbreads and other kinds of cookies and dry pastries. Those, however, are called ‘paste da tè’ (tea pastries) and are considered a distinct product. Nevertheless, pasticcini and paste da tè are often served side-by-side to appeal to every palate.
The Italians are traditionalists when it comes to food, and pasticcini are no exception. As an interesting consequence, it’s on traditional pasticcini that most pastry chefs showcase their best techniques. Every pastry chef needs to know how to execute them flawlessly since it is on them that they are evaluated by their customers.
There are several kinds of traditional pasticcini. Some are available all throughout Italy, some are exclusively regional, and some are only made during particular times of the year. The following can be found nationwide (although some have strong regional origins).
Cannoncini (cream horns). Among the most popular pasticcini. Made with a baked horn of puff pastry (‘pasta sfoglia’), generally filled with pastry cream (‘crema pasticcera’), which may be chocolate or hazelnut flavored. They are not to be confused with ‘cannoli’ (see below), although they sound similar because both of their names derive from ‘canna’ (reed), which they resemble.
Bigné (cream puffs). Also extremely popular. Made with choux pastry filled with pastry cream (vanilla, chocolate, coffee or hazelnut flavored), with Chantilly cream (vanilla-flavored whipped cream), or with zabaione.
Sfogliatelle Napoletane. Made of a shell similar to the Greek phyllo dough and filled with ricotta and candied peel. Originally from Naples.
Crostatine alla frutta (fruit tarts). A base of baked shortbread, with a layer of custard, topped with fresh fruit, often covered with gelatin.
Babà. A spongy cake dipped in sugar water and rum. Also traditional to Naples, though with Polish origins.
Cigni (swans). Bigné which have been cut in half and filled with pastry cream (on the bottom) and whipped cream (on the top). A small squiggle of puff pastry is then applied on the bigné to form the neck and head of a swan.
Cannoli. Made of a fried shell, with a ricotta-based filling and flavored with candied citrus peel or chocolate chips. Originally from Sicily.
Fiamme (flames). Drop-shaped mousse (thick foams, generally chocolate-based), on a wafer or a shortbread base, usually covered in chocolate.
Tronchetti (small trunks). Rolls of sponge cake and mousse, which are then sliced in cylindrical sections.
Tartufi al cioccolato (chocolate trouffles). Chocolate and coffee ganache covered in cocoa powder.
Mini strudel. A small version of the Austrian/German strudel, a kind of pastry filled with apples, raisins, and pine nuts.
Cassatine Siciliane. A small version of the Cassata Siciliana cake, a dessert made with sweet ricotta, sponge cake, almond paste, and candied fruit. Originally from Sicily.
Chiavi di Violino (treble clefs). Liqueur-drizzled sponge cake layered with cream, covered in dark chocolate and decorated with a treble clef made of white chocolate.
Diplomatici. Layered puff pastry, sponge cake, and custard, which is then cut in squares and sprinkled with confectioner’s sugar.
Meringhe(1). Two crisp meringues enclosing a heart of whipped cream.
A basket of pasticcini (2-3 mignon per person) is also a common hostess gift.
Is there more caffeine in an 8 oz medium roast drip, in a single shot espresso, or in an 8 oz dark roast drip? Where does the espresso crema come from? What is the difference between the Percolator and the Drip Pot? What is the Italian Moka? This article answers these and more questions by giving an overview of coffee: from its origins, to its composition, to the coffee machines and the different ways to brew it.
Let’s start from the core: the brewing process. The extraction of desirable substances from the coffee beans into water depends on three factors: the temperature of the water, the amount of time that coffee and water remain in contact, and the extent of the surface of contact (which is lower for a coarse grind and higher for a fine grind). As we will see, these parameters vary substantially between the different brewing methods.
The extraction ratio can be measured as the weight of dissolved grounds in the drink, relative to the total weight of the ground coffee used. Ideally, it should be between 18 and 22%, but higher ratios are sometimes desirable. The strength of a brew depends on the extraction ratio but also on the amount of water used: it can be expressed as the weight of dissolved grounds relative the weight of finished product. The strength ranges from 1.3% for the average drip coffee to 5.5% for espresso.
Besides its intensity, the extraction percentage affects the flavor of the brew. The acidic components, in fact, are easier to extract and tend to dominate in under-extracted coffee. Astringent and bitter components, instead, are harder to extract and therefore prevail in over-extracted coffee. This, combined with the type of coffee beans used and depending on the type of roasting, determines the overall the composition of the brew and its flavor.
Which has more caffeine? Espresso or drip?
Knowing the desired extraction and strength, we can calculate how much coffee grounds are needed for any type of coffee. Particularly:
– To make an 8 oz cup of drip coffee, at 1.3% strength, we need 0.1 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since the Drip Pot has a 20% extraction rate, we need to start from 0.5 oz (14 g) of ground coffee (20% of 0.5 is 0.1).
-To make a 1 oz cup of espresso (single shot), at 5.5% strength, we need 0.055 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since espresso machines have a slightly higher extraction of 22.5%, we need to start from 0.25 oz (7 g) of ground coffee (22.5% of 0.25 oz is 0.055 oz).
The interesting conclusion is that 1 single-shot espresso contains about half of the dissolved grounds than an 8 oz drip coffee. Therefore, if the same kind of beans is used, one espresso contains about half of the caffeine of one small drip coffee.
There are two main varieties of coffee beans: Arabica and Robusta. Arabica has higher amounts of oils, contains twice as much sugar (and as a result has higher acidity due to sugar breakdown), and has half of the caffeine found in Robusta.
During the roasting process, both varieties undergo major transformations. When the coffee beans reach a temperature of 160°C (250°F) the Maillard browning reaction causes them to develop the characteristic roasted color and aroma. Medium roasts are heated up to 190°C.
At around 200°C (390°F), part of the oils are driven to the surface and burn off causing a more intense burnt flavor. Some of the caffeine also burns off, while carbon dioxide (CO2) starts to develop and remains partially trapped in the beans. Dark roasts are heated to 220°C and therefore have less caffeine and oils than medium roasts. They do however contain CO2, which, as we will see, plays an important role in the production of the espresso crema.
Since the aromatic compounds and the CO2 are quite volatile, brewing should ideally take place within a few days of roasting, and within minutes of grinding.
As we mentioned earlier, the depth of the extraction depends on the brewing method used. Over the course of history, several brewing techniques have been developed, each with unique properties. Interestingly, most of them are still in use today in various parts of the world. Let’s go through the main ones in chronological order.
Circa 1450 – 1700. Coffee is born in the Sufi monasteries around the city of Mocha (in Yemen, southern Arabia). Legends indicate that the practice of brewing coffee is tied to the discovery of the reinvigorating effects of caffeine. Coffee then spreads to Egypt and North Africa. During the 16th century, it reaches all of the Middle East and starts to be traded throughout the Mediterranean. As it enters Italy through the trading post of Venice, coffee expands to the rest of Europe. In the 17th century, England, France, the Netherlands, and Austria all become regular coffee importers.
During these times, coffee is exclusively brewed by direct infusion. Roasted powdered beans are boiled in sugared water (fig. 1). After bringing the mix to a boil, the unfiltered coffee is poured into cups, where it rests for a few minutes to allow for the suspended particles to sediment. Since the ground coffee can be in touch with water for a long time, direct infusion tends to over extract. Moreover, the extraction continues even after pouring, turning the coffee more and more bitter as time goes by. This simple technique is still in use in the Middle East, Greece and Turkey.
Fig. 1 – Direct Infusion
1700. In France, the grounds are isolated from the water using a cloth bag and can now be easily removed after the brew is complete.
1750. Still in France, the Drip Pot (or Filter Drip) is invented. This is the first example of percolation: hot water is poured over coffee grounds, it percolates through them (pushed by gravity), and then it passes through a filter (fig. 2). Drip Pot prevents over-extraction by limiting the amount of time that the water is in contact with the grounds and by operating with water below its boiling point. This method will become today’s American favorite, also thanks to automatic drip machines.
Fig. 2 – The Drip Pot
1800. A number of new methods are introduced:
The Plunger Pot (also called French Press). An improvement over direct infusion thanks to a built-in filtering system (the plunger), which pushes the grounds to the bottom through a metal mesh after the desired extraction is reached (fig. 3). The metal filter allows small particles in the drink, resulting in a more velvety coffee, whereas the lack of a paper filter allows for some of the oils to be emulsified into the drink. The Plunger Pot operates a slow extraction that requires relatively coarse grinds.
Fig. 3 – The Plunger Pot (or French Press)
The Percolator. Using steam pressure, water is pushed up into a tube and forced to drop on the grounds. After percolating through, the water lands in the same container where clear water used to be. The cycle can then restart until the desired strength is reached (fig. 4). Since it operates at boiling temperature and recirculates brewed coffee through the grounds, the Percolator may over-extract. This method will become America’s favorite in the 1950s.
Fig. 4 – The Percolator
The Napoletana, or Flip Pot. Originally a French invention, the Napoletana is adopted by the Italians, and from the city of Naples, it spreads to the entire country. The Napoletana is a variation of the Drip Pot where the water is brought to a boil in a lower chamber over a source of heat. The coffee maker is then flipped upside down, the hot water percolates through the grounds and is collected into the other chamber (fig. 5). The Napoletana will remain popular until gradually replaced by the “Moka” (see below).
Fig. 5 – The Napoletana
Vacuum, or Siphon Brewer (1830). Steam pressure pushes hot water from a lower chamber into an upper one, where it mixes with ground coffee. The pressure sustains the column of water and the infusion can occur for as long as desired. When the device is removed from the heat, the pressure of the water column drops, allowing the infusion to go back down to the original chamber, through a metal filter (fig. 6). Despite the name, no actual vacuum is created by this coffee maker – the force that pushes the coffee through the filter is exclusively gravity. The Vacuum Brewer is appreciated in Japan because of its ceremonial character.
Fig. 6 – Vacuum Brewer
1855. The first espresso machine is presented at Paris Expo. The machine is capable of producing individual shots of coffee expressly “on demand”, hence the name. The operating principle is simple: hot water is pushed at high pressure through finely ground coffee (fig. 7). The result, however, is a completely new product. The process extracts the oils contained in the coffee beans, which are emulsified into droplets that bound to the coffee particles in suspension in the water. The emulsification gives the drink a syrupy consistency that binds to our taste buds, accentuating the coffee flavor. The fast brewing process also rapidly extracts the CO2 stored in the grounds, causing the aeration of the emulsion and producing the persistent foam known as crema (Italian for “cream”).
Fig. 7 – The Espresso Machine
1905. Desiderio Pavoni founds in Milan the first company that mass produces espresso machines. Throughout the 20th century, the espresso machine becomes more refined and new standards are determined in terms of ideal brewing parameters. The best results are obtained by heating water to 93°C, and by pumping it at 9 bars through a 7 g patty of compressed grounds (for a single-shot). The extraction takes 20 – 30 seconds and produces 30 – 40 ml of coffee (1 – 1.5 oz).
1933. The Italian “Moka” is patented by Luigi De Ponti for Alfonso Bialetti. Also known in Italy as ‘caffettiera’ (coffee maker), the Moka is a particular kind of percolator where the water goes through coffee grounds while still on its way up, as it is pushed into a funnel by steam pressure (fig. 8). Just like the espresso machine, the Moka operates a quick extraction and requires finely ground coffee. Since it operates at boiling temperature, it produces a slightly over-extracted coffee, which is however popular in Italian homes.
Fig. 8 – The Italian Moka
1970. Home espresso machines appear, but they have limited success because expensive and hard to operate.
1990-2000. More practical home espresso machines enter the market. These can be fully automatic (with a built-in grinder) or based on coffee pods or capsules. The new machines are more reliable and increase in popularity.
To conclude the overview, here is a summary of the various brewing methods with their distinguishing properties.
Brew Type
Brewing Method
Brewing Pressure
Filtering Material
Filtering Pressure
Greek/Turkish
Direct Infusion
None
None
N/A
Vacuum Brewing
Direct Infusion
None
Metal
Above Gravity
French Press
Direct Infusion
None
Metal
Above Gravity
Drip Coffee
Percolation
Gravity
Paper, metal, plastic
Gravity
Napoletana
Percolation
Gravity
Metal
Gravity
Percolator
Multiple Percolation
Gravity
Metal
Gravity
Italian Moka
Percolation
Steam
Metal
Steam
Espresso
Percolation
Pump
Metal
Pump
Links and references:
– David Joachim, Andrew Schloss, A. Philip Handel. The Science of Good Food: The Ultimate Reference on How Cooking Works. 2008.
– Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).
This vegetarian dish is inspired by the renowned Carbonara. I would not call it “Vegetarian Carbonara” though, as there is no such thing in Italy. If you are interested in the original Roman dish, many Cannolo Award winners have recipes for it, including Memorie di Angelina’s Spaghetti alla carbonara.
Aside from how it should be called, the dish that I’m presenting is absolutely delicious and fun to eat. Just like for Carbonara, the main execution difficulty is to find the right moisture balance: allow the eggs to firm up “just enough” and not more!
Egg and Smoked Scamorza Pasta
Yield: 2 servings
Total Time: 25 minutes
Prep Time: 10 minutes
Cook Time: 15 minutes
Ingredients
140 g spaghetti or other long dried pasta
2 eggs, beaten
100 g (3 ½ oz) smoked scamorza (or smoked provolone), thinly diced
3 Tbsp Parmigiano, grated
1 Tbsp unsalted butter
2 cloves garlic, sliced
Black pepper, freshly ground
Salt
Preparation
Prepare the ingredients (1), then start boiling the pasta in salted water for the time indicated on the box.
Lightly beat the eggs with the Parmigiano (2).
Roast the garlic in the butter at low heat for 5 minutes (3), then discard the garlic.
When the pasta is "al dente," drain it quickly then toss it back in the pot along with the garlic-flavored butter. Turn on the heat at low. Stir gently.
Add the beaten eggs and cheese, then continue to stir, scraping the bottom of the pan, until the eggs start to firm up (4). It's important to keep the eggs partly runny, as they will continue to cook in the bowls after being served.
Serve immediately covered with the smoked scamorza and some black pepper. The heat of the pasta will soften the cheese and melt it slightly.
Everyone who has visited Italy agrees – Italian tomatoes are much more than a condiment for burgers or a colorful decoration! They are indisputably full of flavor, a fundamental part of the diet of the Italians, and a defining ingredient in their cuisine.
Originally domesticated in Mexico and only brought to Europe by the Spanish traders in the 1700’s, similar tomato varieties are found in both North America and Italy. Why is the flavor so much different then? The composition of the soil and the exposure to sunlight are certainly involved, but the determining factor in the difference of flavor is that most tomatoes found in North America have been cut while still green to facilitate distribution. In Italy, instead, they are generally grown locally and allowed to ripen on the vine. Note that tomatoes sold “on the vine” in North America may still have been separated from the plant well before ripening.
Ethylene.
For the fruit and vegetable industry, the advantage of unripe distribution is enormous. Green produce is easier to handle – it doesn’t bruise as easily and doesn’t need to be delivered as promptly. However, only climacteric fruits(1) (of which tomatoes are part) have the ability to ripen after they have been cut. During their development, climacteric fruits store sugar in the form of starch. When they are fully grown, the plant starts producing ethylene, a colorless gas that operates as a phytohormone in organizing the ripening process. When exposed to ethylene, fruits increase their respiration and the accumulated starch is converted back into sugar. During this process, the fruits themselves start producing ethylene, which in turn creates a ripening cycle that affects the entire plant and the ones nearby.
Ethylene can also be artificially supplied to picked unripe produce with a similar ripening effect. This allows the fruit distributors to maintain the produce green until it’s about to reach the shelves, and then gas it to cause it to ripen. Unfortunately, despite their mature appearance, fruits that have been cut too early severely lack flavor. Moreover, these fruits tend to have a shorter shelf life than their naturally ripened counterparts.
Among climacteric fruits, bananas, avocados, kiwis, and pears can fully ripen after being picked – there is no particular advantage to allow these fruits to ripen on their trees. On the other hand, tomatoes, apples, apricots, peaches, plums, mangoes, figs, cantaloupe, and nectarines keep on improving the longer they stay attached to their plants.
Non-climacteric fruits like citrus, pineapples, strawberries, and melons don’t store sugars in the form of starch and, when cut off their vines, they arrest their development and only start to degrade, rather than ripen(2).
Tomatoes had a very slow diffusion in Italy. In addition to their late introduction, they encountered a strong resistance due to their resemblance to the botanically related and highly poisonous nightshade. It took until the beginning of the 20th century for tomatoes to become popular. At that point, however, they became so deeply intertwined with Italian cuisine, that they changed it forever. They brought a depth of flavor that never before was found in a vegetable, and it’s nowadays impossible to imagine Italian food without tomatoes.
The remarkable complexity of tomatoes is well represented by their distinct parts, each contributing in different ways to the flavor.
Cuticle(1); outer fruit wall(2); central pith (3); seeds and semi-liquid jelly and juice (4).
Most of the tomato flavor lies in the outer wall (the sweetest part) and in the cuticle (the thin and resistant skin). The jelly and juice surrounding the seeds are instead acidic. As a result, seeded and peeled tomatoes lack flavor and acidity. In cooking, it’s recommended to keep all parts of the tomato fruit together(2), and then strain the resulting product to eliminate any unwanted seeds and skins.
The proportions of skin, walls, jelly, and seeds vary across the different cultivars. Therefore, each of them has different culinary uses. Here are some of the most common Italian preparations that are normally associated with the main tomato varieties. To be noted that tomato juice as a drink is not listed since it isn’t popular in Italy.
Standard globe tomatoes
(Round, smooth, and flattened at the top and bottom. Generally 4-celled, with plenty of juice and seeds.)
Tomatoes are healthy, both raw and cooked. While raw tomatoes contain higher levels of Vitamin C, the antioxidant lycopene (the carotenoid responsible for the red coloring) is boosted by the cooking process and protects the human body from the cell and tissue damage caused by free radicals.
Partly or barely ripe globe tomatoes are used in salads, either by themselves, cut into slices or wedges, or with other veggies (e.g.; cucumbers and bell peppers). Salt, vinegar, and oil are normally used as a dressing. Globe tomatoes are also excellent when paired up with fresh cheese, such as mozzarella, bocconcini, fior di latte, cottage cheese, or burrata. Caprese salad, for instance, consists of tomato and mozzarella, with olive oil and optional basil or oregano. Green globe tomatoes are pickled in vinegar and oil and had as a side.
Coeur de Boeuf (or Beefsteak)
(Big and irregularly shaped, wider than tall. Multi-celled, moderately rich in juice and seeds.)
The stupendously flavorful coeur the boeuf is used in big slices in salads or in sandwiches.
Beefsteak tomato with burrata, olive oil, and oregano.
Cherry or Campari tomatoes
(Small and 2-celled.)
Also used in salads, whole or halved, fully ripe Campari or cherry tomatoes are added to meat or fish stews.
Campari tomatoes on the vine.
Plum tomatoes, e.g.: Roma or San Marzano
(Oblong and smooth, more “mealy” and with fewer seed compartments.)
Strained raw plum tomatoes are used on pizza. Their mealy texture makes them not as appealing to be eaten raw, but they are the preferred choice for all tomato sauces, generally flavored with onion, or with garlic (as in ‘marinara’), or with chili pepper (as in ‘ arrabbiata’, which also has garlic). Plum tomatoes are also best for canning, either strained, chopped or whole (usually peeled, as in the typical “pelati”). In the south of Italy, where in the summer the production of tomatoes often exceeds the consumption needs, canning of strained tomatoes (“passata”) is a common family activity.
Grape tomatoes
(Small plum tomatoes, the size of cherry tomatoes but oblong and mealier.)
Grape tomatoes are generally used in salads, usually whole.
(1) Tomatoes are fruits, being the development of the flowers’ ovaries and containing the plant’s seeds.
(2) Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).
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Tiramisu (or Tiramisù, as written in Italian) is arguably the world’s most popular Italian dessert after gelato. Featured by many Italian restaurants in North America, Tiramisu is for the Italians more of a homemade party cake and an unpretentious dessert found in pizzerie and trattorie.
Even though Tiramisu is a modern creation and many claim its paternity, its origins are actually unknown. The consensus is that Tiramisu as we know it became popular in the 1980s, possibly as a variation of the British trifle in which ladyfingers (called ‘savoiardi’ in Italy) and a cream of mascarpone are used instead of sponge cake and custard. Part of the dessert’s success may be due to its odd name. Although it’s the subject of another debate, most concur that it originated in the literal meaning of the Italian words ‘tirami su’: “pull me up” or “pick me up,” possibly referred to the “uplifting” or even “aphrodisiac” effects of coffee and chocolate.
As described in the recipe below, Tiramisu is commonly flavored with rum (or brandy), coffee and cocoa powder. However, around Italy, there are also versions with very different flavors (e.g. amaretto and peaches, or limoncello and strawberries).
All versions of Tiramisu are centered around a mascarpone filling which traditionally contains raw eggs (as in the recipe below). There are also egg-less versions in which the mascarpone is blended with whipping cream and sugar, resulting in a richer, but also heavier dessert. North American versions often contain more sugar than their Italian counterparts.
Like trifle, Tiramisu needs to rest in the fridge for several hours to set and develop flavor. It is common to prepare it the day before and let it rest in the fridge overnight.
Tiramisu, the Uplifting Dessert
Yield: 8-10 portions
Total Time: 45 minutes
Prep Time: 45 minutes
Ingredients
400 g savoiardi
For the cream
500 g mascarpone cheese (choose a good quality brand - good mascarpone tastes creamy, not cheesy)
5 eggs (at room temperature)
5 Tbsp sugar
2 Tbsp rum (or brandy)
For the coffee dip
6 shots espresso (or an equivalent amount of strong coffee)
2 Tbsp sugar
1 cup milk
2 Tbsp rum
For the finish
½ Tbsp unsweetened cocoa powder
Some shaved dark chocolate (optional)
Preparation
Whisk together egg yolks and sugar (fig. 1) until the mixture becomes lighter in color.
One tablespoon at a time, incorporate the mascarpone (fig. 2). This operation is considered difficult because mascarpone and egg create an emulsion that can suddenly separate. To help prevent this, use egg yolks at room temperature* and begin by incorporating a "starter mix" made by combining a tablespoon of mascarpone and some beaten egg yolk. If the mascarpone is soft, another great option is to stir the beaten egg yolks into the mascarpone, instead of the other way around.
Add the rum (fig. 3), stir slowly until absorbed.
Add the beaten egg white, mixing gently from the bottom upwards in order to incorporate air (fig. 4). The egg whites will work as a stabilizer and help the mascarpone remain emulsified*.
Set the cream aside (fig. 5).
Prepare the coffee dip by mixing espresso and sugar, then adding milk and rum. Let it completely cool off. Dip each ladyfinger in it for a couple of seconds (fig. 6).
Lay each ladyfinger in the baking pan forming a first layer of cookies (fig. 7).
Add a layer of mascarpone cream, then add one more layer of cookies (fig. 8).
Continue alternating the two ingredients, finishing with a layer of mascarpone (fig. 9).
Using a sifter, generously cover the top with unsweetened cocoa powder (fig. 10).
Then, optionally, add the shaved dark chocolate (fig. 11).
Chill the finished Tiramisu (fig. 12) in the fridge for at least 8 hours, covered with tinfoil.
Notes
*Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).
This article is about “Italian” dishes, products, and terms that don’t actually exist in Italy – true Italian myths like Spaghetti with Meatballs (an Italian-American creation), Caesar salad and Italian soda (successful inventions of Italian immigrants), Fettuccini Alfredo, Italian Wedding Soup and “Al fresco” dining (specific Italian items mistaken as traditional).
Despite their Italian roots, these products don’t represent today’s Italian dining and, in that regard, they can’t be considered authentic. However, they are historically important and offer interesting clues on the North American interpretation of Italian food.
1. Spaghetti with (big) meatballs
Probably the biggest Italian myth, widely featured in many Italian restaurants in North America, spaghetti with (big) meatballs are practically absent in Italy. Meatballs on their own, instead, with their many variations, are found almost everywhere in the country under the name ‘polpette’ (from ‘polpa’, pulp).
How did meatballs end up on spaghetti, then? A similar dish with small meatballs on noodles still exists in parts of southern Italy. As a possible explanation, with their arrival in the big American cities, Italian immigrants found a wider availability of meat and quickly switched away from their vegetable-centered diet. Their deeply rooted craving for pasta, however, didn’t abandon them. As the Italians were being assimilated into the American culture, they also started to favor a large single course (as opposed to multiple smaller courses) and more intense use of spices (especially garlic and oregano). This resulted in the combination of spaghetti and meatballs in a rich tomato sauce, which turned into the iconic dish known in North America.
2. Fettuccini Alfredo
Another big Italian myth is Alfredo sauce, along with its most famous use in Fettuccini Alfredo. The name “Alfredo sauce” is almost completely absent in Italy, although there are plenty of pasta sauces that are similarly based on the combination of butter and Parmigiano. For instance, egg noodles, gnocchi, and meatless ravioli (e.g.: with mushrooms, truffles, or ricotta and spinach) are often served with melted butter (sometimes infused with fresh sage) and grated Parmigiano. This type of finish simply goes under the name of “al burro”, with butter. In Rome, egg noodles with butter and Parmigiano are often called “alla Romana”, Roman-style.
Why is this sauce so famously called “Alfredo” in North America, then? The history behind it is well known, though parts of it are mixed with legend. In 1914, Alfredo di Lelio, a Roman restaurateur who was popular among American tourists, named his butter and cheese linguine after himself. According to the legend, the dish caught the attention of early Hollywood actors Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, who were in Rome for their honeymoon. When they returned to the US, the actors introduced the dish to their Hollywood friends, making it famous. In 1943 Alfredo di Lelio sold his restaurant, but the new owner kept the menu and is still in business under the name “Alfredo alla Scrofa“. In 1950, Alfredo di Lelio and his son opened a new restaurant in a different location and called it “Il vero Alfredo“, the real Alfredo, which is now managed by Alfredo’s nephews. Both restaurants are popular with North American tourists that want to taste the original Alfredo recipe. Besides these two restaurants, in Italy, “Alfredo” is just a first-name (Alfred).
3. Italian soda and Italian cream soda
As one can easily imagine, there is nothing called “Italian soda” in Italy. And there is also nothing that tastes like it. Italy only has a handful of traditional sodas, the main ones are ‘aranciata’ (orange-based), ‘gassosa’ (clear, intensely sparkling and with a sweet lemon flavor), ‘cedrata’ (from the citron fruit), and ‘chinotto’ (based on the uniquely flavored chinotto citrus). North American “Italian sodas”, instead, come in a wide variety of flavors (e.g.: cherry, raspberry, pomegranate, grape, peach, strawberry), all of which tend to be sweeter and more intense than their Italian counterparts.
How did Italian sodas happen, then? Probably from the Sicilian tradition of making refreshing drinks by pouring small amounts of concentrated syrups in iced still or sparkling water, or on shaved ice (which is what the Italians call a ‘granita’). The most popular flavors are lemon, mint, tamarind, ‘orzata’ (almond flavored), and ‘amarena’ (from sour black cherries). It appears that the Torani Company, a famous syrup maker from Italy, introduced Italian sodas in 1925, in San Francisco, by adding their syrups to soda water. The drink that resulted was well received by the American palate, and more flavors were then added.
If Italian soda is not really Italian, then “Italian cream soda” is even less so! Industrially made cream soda is usually flavored with vanilla, a pastry-like aroma that would be strange to Italians in a drink. In some North American bars and cafes, cream soda is made by adding cream to carbonated water, which sounds even stranger if not utterly disgusting to any Italian.
4. Caesar salad
With absolutely nothing to do with the well known Roman emperor, numerous sources trace the creation of Caesar dressing back to the 1920s and attribute it to Cesare Cardini, an Italian immigrant who owned restaurants in California and in Mexico. According to the legend, chef Cardini came up with his famous dressing by combining leftovers that he found in his kitchen: romaine lettuce, olive oil, garlic, raw egg, lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce (which is lightly flavored with anchovies), and Parmesan. The dressing quickly became popular with visiting Hollywood’s celebrities and Cardini expanded his business into large-scale production. In 1948 Cardini trademarked his recipe, but he couldn’t patent the “Caesar Salad” name because it was already entrenched in popular culture. When he died, his daughter Rosa took on the business and worked on expanding the Cardini brand, which she then sold to a third party.
Despite the fact that the flavors in Caesar salad meet the Italian palate, this dish is unknown in Italy except for a few restaurants that cater to a North American clientele.
5. Italian wedding soup
Italian wedding soup is a completely misrepresented dish, not as much for the “Italian” adjective, but for the “wedding” one. There is no wedding soup in Italy – soups are generally humble dishes that lack any festive connotations. The name, in fact, likely comes from a mistranslation of ‘minestra maritata’, married soup, in which vegetables (escarole, cabbage, endive) and meat (sausage or meatballs) symbolically marry in one single dish.
6. “Al fresco” dining
Although the Italian words “al fresco” are a common way to say in the freshness of the outdoors, the association between “al fresco” and outdoor dining is not particularly strong in Italy. In the hot Italian summers, dining outdoors is a treat for many. As a result, restaurants often feature patios and gardens or obtain authorization to set up tables on the sidewalks. Despite this, the phrase “mangiare all’aperto”, eating outside, is far more common than “mangiare al fresco”, possibly because “al fresco” also carries the negative connotation of meaning in jail.
Canederli are bread dumplings only found in the north-east of Italy (Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli, and part of Veneto), where they are served as a first course or as a main entree. Variations of this dish are common in all south-eastern Europe, where they are also served as an accompaniment to meat stews and roasts. The word ‘canederlo’, in fact, derives from the German and Austrian ‘knödel’ (dumpling).
Canederli can be considered part of ‘cucina povera’ (cuisine of the poor), as they are made of simple and inexpensive ingredients: stale bread moistened with milk and bound with eggs and a small amount of flour. However, the mixture is often enriched with cheese and Speck (a kind of smoked prosciutto also local to the north-east regions of Italy).
There are several variations of this regional dish, the following recipe describes one of the most common: filled with cheese. Once the dumplings are prepared and boiled, they are either served “dry” with melted butter or in broth.
300 g (10 oz) stale bread, diced (which can be obtained by dicing 450 g of fresh bread and laying it on a perforated tray for 24-48 hours, covered with a tea towel) - it's important that the bread is fully dried out and crunchy
225 ml (1 scant cup) milk
3 eggs, lightly beaten
60 g (½ cup) white flour
3 Tbsp (minced) flat leaf (Italian) parsley
200 g (7 oz) cheese, e.g.: Fontina, Raclette (smoked or plain), or Gouda (smoked or plain), diced
45 g (3 Tbsp) unsalted butter
1 ½ Tbsp olive oil
1 onion, finely chopped
½ tsp salt
¼ tsp pepper
¼ tsp nutmeg
3 liters (12 cups) of vegetable stock (for boiling)
To serve them "dry"
20 g (1 ½ Tbsp) (per serving) unsalted butter
10 g (2 tsp) (per serving) grated Parmigiano
1 small bunch of chives, thinly sliced
To serve them in broth
1 cup (per serving) additional vegetable stock
Some grated Parmigiano
Some chives, thinly sliced (optional)
Preparation
Put the stale bread into a large mixing bowl (1). Add the milk (2), the eggs (3), as well as salt, pepper and nutmeg.
Mix well and let it rest for at least two hours, covered with a tea towel, in a cool place or in the fridge. Stir occasionally to ensure that the mix absorbs the liquid uniformly.
After the two hours, add the flour (4), then the parsley (5), and the cheese (6). Mix gently.
Finely chop the onion (7) and fry it in oil and butter for ten minutes at medium heat, stirring occasionally.
Let the onion cool (8), then incorporate it into the mix (9).
Let the mixture rest for another half-hour covered with a tea towel. It should look uniformly moist and slightly sticky.
Using your hands, form the canederli by pressing together enough of the mix to make balls the size of a small orange (60 to 80 grams each). You should be able produce 14-16 balls out of the entire mix.
After making each ball, roll it in flour to seal the outside and prevent the canederli from sticking to each other (10).
When all the canederli are ready, re-roll them into flour and compress them a second time (11).
Have the vegetable stock in a large pot, well boiling on the stove.
Place the canederli gently in the pot (12-13), wait until the boil is resumed (14).
Boil the canederli for 12-15 minutes (they will be floating the whole time), then drain them gently.
If serving the canederli "dry", warm up the butter just enough to melt it. Place 3 canederli into each plate, pour the melted butter on them, then sprinkle with some thin-sliced chives, a generous amount of grated Parmigiano, and some freshly ground black pepper.
Notes
Note: once boiled, the canederli can be stored in the fridge for up to 3 days, or in the freezer for up to 2 weeks.
If serving the canederli in broth, prepare more vegetable stock (as the one used for boiling will be cloudy because of the flour). Place one or two canederli into each bowl, then pour the broth on them. Finish with some grated Parmigiano and (optional) chives.
Thanks to all who played the Pasta Calendar Quiz. If you’re like me and like numbers, you may enjoy this quick update. Spoiler warning! This post will give the correct answers.
Surprisingly only 43% of the people who played answered correctly to all questions. Another 25% did quite well, though, with just 1 error, 21% made 2 mistakes, 9% made 3, and 2% made 4. Nobody got them all wrong.
The question that people had the most problems with was: What is the “companatico?” This might have been a little tricky also for the Italians because ‘companatico’ is an archaic word rarely used these days. ‘Companatico’ comes from Late Latin “companaticum” which means “together with bread.” For instance, cheese is companatico. 68% answered correctly, whereas 30% answered: “A side dish that accompanies the main course,” probably mixing up with ‘contorno.’ One person said: “A typical Christmas cake,” probably confusing it with Panettone.
The other question that was a bit challenging was: If you ask for a “latte” in an Italian bar, what do you get? – a clear trap for the non-Italians :). ‘Latte’ means milk, so, in Italy, if you ask for a ‘latte,’ you get a glass of cold milk (you would need to ask for ‘latte caldo’ to get your milk warmed up.) 79% answered correctly, 17% instead chose: “Steamed milk with a shot of espresso,” which is what you would get outside of Italy, probably short for ‘caffé latte’ – milk with coffe. A small 4% answered: “A strange look from the bartender, pubs don’t sell coffee!”, probably tricked by the word ‘bar,’ which in Italy is associated with a licensed coffee bar, whereas in North America it more often refers to a ‘Martini bar’ or ‘pub.’
83% answered correctly to the question: In Italy, what does the word “panini” refer to?, which is “Two or more sandwiches of any kind,” hinting to the fact that ‘panini’ is plural of panino, and panino is just the Italian word for sandwich. 17% answered: “A grilled sandwich filled with plenty of Italian cold cuts and cheeses,” which is incorrect on two counts: ‘panini’ (plural) would be more than one sandwich, and authentic Italian sandwiches generally are not filled with plenty of different cold cuts and cheeses. Nobody answered: “A toasted sandwich with ham, cheese, and pickles,” which would be what the Italians call a ‘toast.’
People did really well with the chemistry-inspired question on when to double the amount of salt when boiling pasta. What matters is the concentration of salt in the water, so salt is proportional to the amount of water (usually, ½ tablespoon per liter). 83% answered correctly, 11% thought that the amount of salt should be proportional to the amount of pasta, and 6% were completely confused and answered that the amount of salt should be doubled when cooking the pasta “al dente.” Al dente means not overcooked, which has little to do with the amount of salt in the water.
The question on: What is the “aperitivo?” was also very easy for most. 85% gave the correct answer: “A drink to be had before the meal, usually accompanied by a snack,” whereas the rest was equally split between: “The Italian equivalent of the ‘starter’ course,” which would be the antipasto, and: “A drink to be had after the coffee,” which would be the ‘digestivo.’
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