Tag: difference

I was featured on Rick Zullo’s “The Fatal Charm of Italy” podcast!

A few days ago I had the pleasure to be invited by my friend, writer Rick Zullo to be part of his new podcast: “The Fatal Charm of Italy“. I had a fantastic time! Rick is such an amazing host, and his insatiable curiosity makes for a very insightful conversation. You can listen to the episode online or subscribe to the podcast in iTunes, which is definitely what I recommend!

During the episode we touched on:

  • The different perception on what “Italian food” means in North America, vs. continental Italy;
  • The reason why food is such a big deal to the Italians, and why the Italians follow so many food “rules”;
  • The difference in table service between Italian restaurants and North American restaurants.
I hope you’ll have as much fun listening to it than we had recording it!
Rick, thanks so much also for the kind words you used to introduce Disgraces on the Menu to your followers. Grazie di cuore, è un onore!

Four Years of Blogging, One of Podcasting

Another interesting year for Disgraces on the Menu – the year that has seen the beginning of the podcast Thoughts on the Table, along with several collaborations. I have always been fascinated with radio shows. When I was in my 20s, I hosted a radio host on a small Italian station. I didn’t expect to have the opportunity to do anything remotely similar in English, until I discovered podcasts. But the real trigger to record one came when my wife got me a microphone as a birthday present, and a buddy of mine, Jason, agreed to produce one with me.

Initially, the podcast’s concept was a direct extension of my blog’s philosophy: investigate what’s behind food and flavor, especially in relation to the difference between what is known as “Italian food” and the true cuisine of Italy. This is what fueled the first 6 episodes.

After the first mini-series on flavor, just as I was starting to become comfortable with the format, my podcast partner, Jason, had to leave the project. This is when I started thinking about involving other food bloggers through remote conferencing. At the same time, my friend Gino DeBlasio (based in the UK) volunteered as my first guest – it was meant to happen!

After a mini-series with Gino on misconceptions about Italian food, I worked with Jessica Burgio on episodes about lesser known Italian dishes and cooking Italian in North America. Then, I was joined by Manuela Zangara, who talked about her first e-book and shared her experience as a full-time food blogger.

The podcast then started taking the format of the interview. I had several special guests: Frank Fariello, Fiona, Christina Conte and Simona Carini. I also had the opportunity to interview my friends – neuroscientist Davide Anchisi and restaurateur Andrea Bini. On my latest trip to Italy, I also had the chance to record a chat with my grandmother on the food in Italy during War World Two, which then became a unique and especially meaningful episode. More recently, I have spoken with Lucia Hannau, the organizer of a food conference which will take place in Turin this September – and of which I am going to be part of – and with Elisa Cerruti, a fellow attendee.
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On the blog, this year I posted 6 recipes: Stewed Brussels Sprouts, Radicchio Risotto with Parmesan Rind, Poppy Seed Potato Bignès, Shrimp, Zucchini and Saffron Linguine, Roasted Green Beans, and Truffles Uncovered, which was also a feature article.

Looking into year five, I hope to continue with more podcast episodes, featuring new and returning guests, as well as have the time to go back to writing more articles and recipes, which is still a great passion of mine. But today, I would just like to stop for a second to thank everyone who has been following my work – thank you for your attention, it’s an honor for me!

Three Years of Blogging

After another year, it’s time for my usual retrospective. This year’s production hasn’t been as high as in the first two years. I don’t have a good excuse for the drop, but I can think of a few contributing factors in my personal life (I moved to a new place, and took on a different role in my job). On the bright side, however, the blog has maintained good traffic thanks to some of the articles posted in previous years which now enjoy fairly high Google rankings. This is exciting because it led to some more incoming links.

During the last year, I published recipes for a risotto (with asparagus), a hearty soup (with rice and parsley), two pasta dishes (with vodka and with saffron), and an elaborate baked pasta (Tagliatelle Timbale with Wine Gravy), which was also a guest recipe on La Bella Vita.

As for food articles, I largely focused on the difference between Italy and North America. The articles on Table Service and The Italian Bar were centered on the different cultures around foods, and the post on Eggs touched on different food production and distribution. In other posts, I described Italian fine pastries (generically called Pasticcini), and I ventured into the fascinating world of the Italian blue cheese: Gorgonzola.

But now it’s time to look forward to next year, and I have some incredible news! I am extremely excited to introduce… (drum roll) a series of audio posts! I’ve been dreaming about having a podcast, and it has finally become a reality. Stay tuned for the first episode of “Thoughts on the Table”, to be posted soon on this blog.

A World of Eggs – How They Differ Between Italy and North America

Chicken eggs are one of the world’s most popular foods and have a significant presence in the diet of both Italians and North Americans. However, their aspect and the way they are consumed are substantially different between Italy and North America. In this article, I will list 5 of these differences, while also describing why eggs are an essential ingredient in cooking and a marvel of nutrition.

Color and nutritional/culinary properties

The first most obvious difference is in the color of the shell. In Italy eggs are prevalently brown; in North America, prevalently white (difference #1). What causes this difference? The color of the shell comes entirely from the breed of the chicken: white hens make white eggs, red and brown hens make brown eggs. So are Italian chickens indigenously brown? No, they are chosen by the breeders according to the preference of the market.

It’s interesting to see how the shell color preference varies around the world. As illustrated in the map below, it doesn’t have any obvious correlation to the geographical location – it varies more based on culture.

Distribution of white eggs versus brown eggs
Distribution of white eggs versus brown eggs as reported by the International Egg Commission in 2008.

What about the color of the yolk instead? That depends entirely on the hen’s diet. If the hen is fed plants rich in xanthophylls (such as alfalfa or yellow corn), the yolk acquires a darker color. So, is Italian feed more conducive to producing orange yolks? Not really, similarly to the breed, the choice of the feed is driven by the preference of the customers: North America seems to prefer lemony-gold yolks, whereas Italy and most of Europe goes for deep orange yolks.

A dark yellow yolk found in a brown egg, and a lemony yellow yolk found in a white egg.
A dark yellow yolk and a lemony yellow yolk.

When eggs with pale yellow yolks and eggs with orange yolks are both available on the market, matching shell color is generally chosen to distinguish between the two: white for pale yellow yolks, brown for orange yolks.

Nutritionally speaking, all eggs are identical being designed to nourish the embryo until the chick hatches after 21 days of incubation.

Within the egg, the yolk and the white have substantially different properties and nutritional values, however. The yolk weighs about 1/3rd of the whole egg and contains ¾ of its calories in the form of proteins and aggregates of proteins-fat-lecithin. These aggregates give eggs their emulsifying properties: the amazing capacity to bind with both fat and water to create wonders like mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce.

The egg’s white (or albumen) contains a similar amount of protein as the yolk, but the majority of those proteins actually have anti-nutritional value when eaten raw. While they are nourishing for the embryo, they inhibit digestive enzymes and prevent the absorption of vitamins and iron. The egg white also contains ovomucin, a protein with thickening and binding properties meant to protect the developing bird. Ovomucin is also very valuable in cooking: it helps keep together cakes and certain kinds of pasta (e.g. tagliatelle and lasagna), stabilize foams, and give a shiny finish to pastries.

Salmonella

Eating raw eggs is discouraged in North America. This isn’t because of the anti-nutritional properties of raw egg white, but because of the fear of Salmonella, a bacterial infection that can have serious health consequences.

An egg in the UK, with its British Lion mark.
An egg in the UK, with its British Lion mark.

Both Europe and North America have been exposed to Salmonella outbreaks, but they have adopted different strategies to counteract them. In 1998, the UK introduced a program called the “British Lion Code of Practice“. The initiative certifies egg farms that adhere to a stringent code of practice, which includes: vaccination for the hens, complete traceability of the animals’ origins, and complete traceability of their feed. It also mandates that each egg is individually marked with a code identifying the expiry date, the farm of origin, and the keeping of the hens (free-range, barn, or cage).

Since 2004, egg marking has been adopted by the European Union.

An egg in Italy. On the carton, a legend explains on how to read the mark.
An egg in Italy. On the carton, a legend explains how to read the mark.

Despite overall improvements in the conditions in which hens are kept, North America still doesn’t apply the same stringent regulations and Salmonella infections are still quite common. As a result, North Americans are wary of raw eggs and the US FDA strongly recommends cooking eggs through or using pasteurized eggs. In Italy and in the rest of Europe such fear is much less prevalent (difference #2). Raw eggs are also traditionally part of popular preparations, such as homemade mayonnaise and Tiramisu, which makes them more culturally accepted.

Refrigeration

The fear of Salmonella also causes the next difference (difference #3). By law, in the USA and Canada eggs must be refrigerated in supermarkets and grocery stores. This policy is motivated by the fact that a contaminated egg is mainly harmless until the bacteria have had a chance to multiply and colonize the egg, a process that is slower at low temperatures.

Italy, the UK, and other parts of Europe don’t have mandatory refrigeration. As a matter of fact, they have the opposite policy: refrigeration is forbidden until the eggs reach their final storage destination (the home fridge). The reason for the different policy lies in another important difference: in Italy eggs are unwashed! (difference #4) When eggs are laid, they are naturally covered with a thin film that makes the shell less porous and isolates it from bacteria that are present in the hen’s intestinal tract. This film helps preserve the egg by maintaining more of its water content, by avoiding CO2 perspiration (a byproduct of the loss of acidity that occurs when the egg ages), and by isolating the egg from off-flavors that it could absorb from the environment (e.g. the smell of other foods in the fridge). This protective film can easily be washed away by the natural condensation of the moisture in the air as it comes into contact with the cold surface of a refrigerated egg. Condensation is particularly harmful because it won’t just wash off the protective film, it will actually melt it in place and allow any bacteria that is present on the surface of the egg to get inside. It’s customary for Italians to wash eggs before using them should the shell comes into contact with the egg’s content during cracking.

Uses

Despite the differences in the hens’ breed and feed, eggs taste the same in Italy as they do in North America. However, traditionally, their role in the diet differs substantially. In Italy, eggs can be found, in various preparations, as lunch or dinner options. In North America, instead, they are mostly associated with breakfast (difference #5).

The names of the different cooking styles have creative translations in Italian:

– Sunny-side up → ‘occhio di bue’ (literally “bull’s eye”).
– Scrambled eggs → ‘uova strapazzate’ (literally “overworked” eggs).
– Hardboiled egg → ‘uovo sodo’ (literally “firm” egg).
– Soft boiled → ‘alla coque’ (from the French word for “shell”).
– Poached → ‘in camicia’ (literally “in a shirt”).

IncredibleEgg.org has excellent instructions on how to properly cook eggs in any of these styles, and others too.

As described in the article “Breakfast or Colazione?“, Italians prefer to start their day with something baked, along with coffee or cappuccino. Fried eggs, instead, are seen as an informal meal, often prepared in a frittata (from ‘fritto’, fried, generically indicating a dish in which eggs are cooked in a pan on a layer of fat). To prepare a frittata, the eggs are beaten with salt and pepper, and sometimes a small amount of milk or water. Often, additional ingredients are mixed in, either individually or in combination. Common add-ons include vegetables (e.g. onions, mushrooms, zucchini, asparagus – all sautéed in advance), cheese (e.g. Provolone, Taleggio, Fontina, grated Parmigiano), and meat (prosciutto cotto – the Italian ham -, salame, sausage). In a frittata, the eggs can either be scrambled or set. When set, the thickness can vary between a few millimeters (like in a French omelet), and a few centimeters (like in a Spanish omelet).

Other than in frittata, eggs are the main component of a number of other Italian dishes:

Zucchini Frittata
Zucchini Frittata
  • Spaghetti alla Carbonara, a dish from the Rome region, where eggs are the main component of the sauce.
  • Asparagi alla Milanese, sunny-side up, fried in butter.
  • Sandwiches (e.g. as a zucchini frittata).
  • Stracciatella soup (also a dish from central Italy, known as “egg drop soup” in North America).
  • The Tiramisu dessert (where raw eggs are part of the mascarpone cream).
  • Pastry cream (‘crema pasticcera’) a custard also used to fill some kind of pasticcini.
  • Zabaione, a dessert consisting of a light custard, flavored with Marsala wine.
  • Gelato (as a natural emulsifier).
  • ‘Uovo sbattuto’, an old-fashion afternoon snack (raw yolks beaten with sugar, with optional cocoa, or even with a shot of espresso!)

The following instead are uses that are almost exclusively North American:

  • As breakfast (any style with bacon or sausage, in breakfast bagels, breakfast burritos, Eggs Benedict).
  • In the Egg Salad sandwich.

Finally, these are uses that are common between North America and Italy:

  • To make breaded veal, beef, or pork steak, like in Cotoletta alla Milanese – the Italian equivalent of Schnitzel.
  • In salads (hardboiled).
  • In Deviled Eggs, or in its Italian equivalent (usually stuffed with tuna).
  • In meringues (although Italian meringues are dry, light and crunchy, as opposed to soft and gooey).
  • In preparations like cakes, egg pasta, and as an emulsifying and binding element in countless other recipes.

More featured articles

Two Years of Blogging

Another year has gone by, marking Quatro Fromaggio’s second birthday, and the time for me to look back at 12 more months of blogging!

With about 30 articles published, I managed to keep my resolution of posting at least once every two weeks, having failed my real resolution to post every week. Out of the 19 new recipes, a few became quite popular, confirming that people go to food blogs when they are looking for genuine recipes.

I presented an appetizer (Cannellini and Radicchio Crostini), a summer salad (Insalata di Riso), two second courses (Asparagi alla Milanese, Frittatona di Cipolle), one side (Polenta Taragna), two desserts (Caldarroste and Tiramisu), one soup (Summer Minestra), one risotto (Saffron and Leek), several pasta dishes (Pesto, Potatoes and Green Beans Pasta, Bell Pepper Pasta, Pasta alla Norma, Egg Pasta with Green Beans and Mushrooms, Baked Shells Pasta with Ricotta and Spinach, Tagliolini with Mushrooms, Eggs and Smoked Scamorza Pasta), and, finally, the interesting Canederli, the Italian version of Knödel.

As you may have noticed, Quatro Fromaggio has the “unadvertised feature” of containing all vegetarian (lacto-ovo) recipes, most of which being first courses. This is because my wife and I have a vegetarian household and because these are the recipes that I enjoy cooking the most. In the coming year, I would like to present more sides dishes, appetizers, and a few second courses.

By posting more new recipes, I had the opportunity to work on my food photography. I still have a long way to go, but I think I managed to make my recipes look at least appetizing, which is actually quite challenging. I invested a bit in the equipment, but I also followed a few important tips, such as the ones from Michael Ray and from Katherine Martinelli.

Still, recipes are not the main focus of this blog; the main focus is to talk about Italian culture and the difference between contemporary (continental) Italian food and its misrepresentations around the world. As I expected, having covered in year one all the basic Italian themes (and most of my pet peeves), I now have to dig deeper to find new topics and do much more research. This is the real reason why I have so many recipes this year, relatively to the number of articles – I keep posting recipes because the articles take longer to write! However, this also means that I’m learning a lot – instead of just comparing Italian products to their North American counterparts, I now need to understand the reasons of this difference. For the Italian Myths article, for instance, I discovered a lot about Italian-American cuisine, of which I admit I didn’t know much about. Other articles were about: Panini, Ravioli, Limoncello, Amaretti and Amaretto, Tomatoes, and Coffee.

This year I also ran one interesting experiment, the Pasta Calendar giveaway offered to all who participated in a Quiz on Italian cuisine. Many took the test, and I very much enjoyed looking at the results. Especially because they confirmed that there is still very much need for blogs like mine!

But the most interesting initiative of the entire year is, without doubt, the introduction of the Cannolo Award, which has gained far more popularity than I expected by reaching several acclaimed food blogs, and by being proudly displayed by most of them. The inspiration came from the many awards that food bloggers give to other food bloggers as recognition for good work and to cross-link. I’ve always dreamed of some kind of “certification” for food that is presented as “Italian”, as for any other regional or ethnic food. Wouldn’t it be awesome to dine at Paolo’s Italian Restaurant, licensed and certified? Well, I thought, at least let’s certify food blogs! I would like to thank my wife Candace for coming up with the name (which then gave birth to the logo) – I think it played a big part in the award’s success.

As usual, thanks all for reading! Please contact me if you have any request or suggestion, or please post a comment. Feedback is always welcome.

The Coffee Machines – The Evolution of Coffee Extraction

Is there more caffeine in an 8 oz medium roast drip, in a single shot espresso, or in an 8 oz dark roast drip? Where does the espresso crema come from? What is the difference between the Percolator and the Drip Pot? What is the Italian Moka? This article answers these and more questions by giving an overview of coffee: from its origins, to its composition, to the coffee machines and the different ways to brew it.

Let’s start from the core: the brewing process. The extraction of desirable substances from the coffee beans into water depends on three factors: the temperature of the water, the amount of time that coffee and water remain in contact, and the extent of the surface of contact (which is lower for a coarse grind and higher for a fine grind). As we will see, these parameters vary substantially between the different brewing methods.

The extraction ratio can be measured as the weight of dissolved grounds in the drink, relative to the total weight of the ground coffee used. Ideally, it should be between 18 and 22%, but higher ratios are sometimes desirable. The strength of a brew depends on the extraction ratio but also on the amount of water used: it can be expressed as the weight of dissolved grounds relative the weight of finished product. The strength ranges from 1.3% for the average drip coffee to 5.5% for espresso.

Besides its intensity, the extraction percentage affects the flavor of the brew. The acidic components, in fact, are easier to extract and tend to dominate in under-extracted coffee. Astringent and bitter components, instead, are harder to extract and therefore prevail in over-extracted coffee. This, combined with the type of coffee beans used and depending on the type of roasting, determines the overall the composition of the brew and its flavor.

Which has more caffeine? Espresso or drip?

Knowing the desired extraction and strength, we can calculate how much coffee grounds are needed for any type of coffee. Particularly:

– To make an 8 oz cup of drip coffee, at 1.3% strength, we need 0.1 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since the Drip Pot has a 20% extraction rate, we need to start from 0.5 oz (14 g) of ground coffee (20% of 0.5 is 0.1).

-To make a 1 oz cup of espresso (single shot), at 5.5% strength, we need 0.055 oz of dissolved coffee grounds. Since espresso machines have a slightly higher extraction of 22.5%, we need to start from 0.25 oz (7 g) of ground coffee (22.5% of 0.25 oz is 0.055 oz).

The interesting conclusion is that 1 single-shot espresso contains about half of the dissolved grounds than an 8 oz drip coffee. Therefore, if the same kind of beans is used, one espresso contains about half of the caffeine of one small drip coffee.

There are two main varieties of coffee beans: Arabica and Robusta. Arabica has higher amounts of oils, contains twice as much sugar (and as a result has higher acidity due to sugar breakdown), and has half of the caffeine found in Robusta.

During the roasting process, both varieties undergo major transformations. When the coffee beans reach a temperature of 160°C (250°F) the Maillard browning reaction causes them to develop the characteristic roasted color and aroma. Medium roasts are heated up to 190°C.

At around 200°C (390°F), part of the oils are driven to the surface and burn off causing a more intense burnt flavor. Some of the caffeine also burns off, while carbon dioxide (CO2) starts to develop and remains partially trapped in the beans. Dark roasts are heated to 220°C and therefore have less caffeine and oils than medium roasts. They do however contain CO2, which, as we will see, plays an important role in the production of the espresso crema.

Since the aromatic compounds and the CO2 are quite volatile, brewing should ideally take place within a few days of roasting, and within minutes of grinding.

As we mentioned earlier, the depth of the extraction depends on the brewing method used. Over the course of history, several brewing techniques have been developed, each with unique properties. Interestingly, most of them are still in use today in various parts of the world. Let’s go through the main ones in chronological order.

Circa 1450 – 1700. Coffee is born in the Sufi monasteries around the city of Mocha (in Yemen, southern Arabia). Legends indicate that the practice of brewing coffee is tied to the discovery of the reinvigorating effects of caffeine. Coffee then spreads to Egypt and North Africa. During the 16th century, it reaches all of the Middle East and starts to be traded throughout the Mediterranean. As it enters Italy through the trading post of Venice, coffee expands to the rest of Europe. In the 17th century, England, France, the Netherlands, and Austria all become regular coffee importers.

During these times, coffee is exclusively brewed by direct infusion. Roasted powdered beans are boiled in sugared water (fig. 1). After bringing the mix to a boil, the unfiltered coffee is poured into cups, where it rests for a few minutes to allow for the suspended particles to sediment. Since the ground coffee can be in touch with water for a long time, direct infusion tends to over extract. Moreover, the extraction continues even after pouring, turning the coffee more and more bitter as time goes by. This simple technique is still in use in the Middle East, Greece and Turkey.

Fig. 1 - Direct Infusion
Fig. 1 – Direct Infusion

1700. In France, the grounds are isolated from the water using a cloth bag and can now be easily removed after the brew is complete.

1750. Still in France, the Drip Pot (or Filter Drip) is invented. This is the first example of percolation: hot water is poured over coffee grounds, it percolates through them (pushed by gravity), and then it passes through a filter (fig. 2). Drip Pot prevents over-extraction by limiting the amount of time that the water is in contact with the grounds and by operating with water below its boiling point. This method will become today’s American favorite, also thanks to automatic drip machines.

Fig. 2 - The Drip Pot
Fig. 2 – The Drip Pot

1800. A number of new methods are introduced:

    • The Plunger Pot (also called French Press). An improvement over direct infusion thanks to a built-in filtering system (the plunger), which pushes the grounds to the bottom through a metal mesh after the desired extraction is reached (fig. 3). The metal filter allows small particles in the drink, resulting in a more velvety coffee, whereas the lack of a paper filter allows for some of the oils to be emulsified into the drink. The Plunger Pot operates a slow extraction that requires relatively coarse grinds.
Fig. 3 - The Plunger Pot
Fig. 3 – The Plunger Pot (or French Press)
    • The Percolator. Using steam pressure, water is pushed up into a tube and forced to drop on the grounds. After percolating through, the water lands in the same container where clear water used to be. The cycle can then restart until the desired strength is reached (fig. 4). Since it operates at boiling temperature and recirculates brewed coffee through the grounds, the Percolator may over-extract. This method will become America’s favorite in the 1950s.
Fig. 4 - The Percolator
Fig. 4 – The Percolator
    • The Napoletana, or Flip Pot. Originally a French invention, the Napoletana is adopted by the Italians, and from the city of Naples, it spreads to the entire country. The Napoletana is a variation of the Drip Pot where the water is brought to a boil in a lower chamber over a source of heat. The coffee maker is then flipped upside down, the hot water percolates through the grounds and is collected into the other chamber (fig. 5). The Napoletana will remain popular until gradually replaced by the “Moka” (see below).
Fig. 5 - The Napoletana
Fig. 5 – The Napoletana
    • Vacuum, or Siphon Brewer (1830). Steam pressure pushes hot water from a lower chamber into an upper one, where it mixes with ground coffee. The pressure sustains the column of water and the infusion can occur for as long as desired. When the device is removed from the heat, the pressure of the water column drops, allowing the infusion to go back down to the original chamber, through a metal filter (fig. 6). Despite the name, no actual vacuum is created by this coffee maker – the force that pushes the coffee through the filter is exclusively gravity. The Vacuum Brewer is appreciated in Japan because of its ceremonial character.
Fig. 6 - Vacuum Brewer
Fig. 6 – Vacuum Brewer

1855. The first espresso machine is presented at Paris Expo. The machine is capable of producing individual shots of coffee expressly “on demand”, hence the name. The operating principle is simple: hot water is pushed at high pressure through finely ground coffee (fig. 7). The result, however, is a completely new product. The process extracts the oils contained in the coffee beans, which are emulsified into droplets that bound to the coffee particles in suspension in the water. The emulsification gives the drink a syrupy consistency that binds to our taste buds, accentuating the coffee flavor. The fast brewing process also rapidly extracts the CO2 stored in the grounds, causing the aeration of the emulsion and producing the persistent foam known as crema (Italian for “cream”).

Fig. 7 - The Espresso Machine
Fig. 7 – The Espresso Machine

1905. Desiderio Pavoni founds in Milan the first company that mass produces espresso machines. Throughout the 20th century, the espresso machine becomes more refined and new standards are determined in terms of ideal brewing parameters. The best results are obtained by heating water to 93°C, and by pumping it at 9 bars through a 7 g patty of compressed grounds (for a single-shot). The extraction takes 20 – 30 seconds and produces 30 – 40 ml of coffee (1 – 1.5 oz).

1933. The Italian “Moka” is patented by Luigi De Ponti for Alfonso Bialetti. Also known in Italy as ‘caffettiera’ (coffee maker), the Moka is a particular kind of percolator where the water goes through coffee grounds while still on its way up, as it is pushed into a funnel by steam pressure (fig. 8). Just like the espresso machine, the Moka operates a quick extraction and requires finely ground coffee. Since it operates at boiling temperature, it produces a slightly over-extracted coffee, which is however popular in Italian homes.

Fig. 8 - The Italian Moka
Fig. 8 – The Italian Moka

1970. Home espresso machines appear, but they have limited success because expensive and hard to operate.

1990-2000. More practical home espresso machines enter the market. These can be fully automatic (with a built-in grinder) or based on coffee pods or capsules. The new machines are more reliable and increase in popularity.

To conclude the overview, here is a summary of the various brewing methods with their distinguishing properties.

Brew Type Brewing Method Brewing Pressure Filtering Material Filtering Pressure
Greek/Turkish Direct Infusion None None N/A
Vacuum Brewing Direct Infusion None Metal Above Gravity
French Press Direct Infusion None Metal Above Gravity
Drip Coffee Percolation Gravity Paper, metal, plastic Gravity
Napoletana Percolation Gravity Metal Gravity
Percolator Multiple Percolation Gravity Metal Gravity
Italian Moka Percolation Steam Metal Steam
Espresso Percolation Pump Metal Pump

Links and references:

– David Joachim, Andrew Schloss, A. Philip Handel. The Science of Good Food: The Ultimate Reference on How Cooking Works. 2008.
– Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).

– Turkish coffee http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_coffee
– Vacuum brewing http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_brewer
– French press http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_press
– Drip Coffee – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drip_brew
– Napoletana – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neapolitan_flip_coffee_pot
– Percolators http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percolator
– Italian Moka – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moka_pot
– Espresso – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espresso

Copyright notices:

– The vintage poster used for this article (by Henri Privat-Livemont, published in Paris in 1897) is royalty-free.
– All illustrations © Quatro Fromaggio. All rights reserved.

Tomatoes and Pomodori – Differences Between Italy and North America

Everyone who has visited Italy agrees – Italian tomatoes are much more than a condiment for burgers or a colorful decoration! They are indisputably full of flavor, a fundamental part of the diet of the Italians, and a defining ingredient in their cuisine.

Originally domesticated in Mexico and only brought to Europe by the Spanish traders in the 1700’s, similar tomato varieties are found in both North America and Italy. Why is the flavor so much different then? The composition of the soil and the exposure to sunlight are certainly involved, but the determining factor in the difference of flavor is that most tomatoes found in North America have been cut while still green to facilitate distribution. In Italy, instead, they are generally grown locally and allowed to ripen on the vine. Note that tomatoes sold “on the vine” in North America may still have been separated from the plant well before ripening.

Ethylene.
Ethylene.

For the fruit and vegetable industry, the advantage of unripe distribution is enormous. Green produce is easier to handle – it doesn’t bruise as easily and doesn’t need to be delivered as promptly. However, only climacteric fruits(1) (of which tomatoes are part) have the ability to ripen after they have been cut. During their development, climacteric fruits store sugar in the form of starch. When they are fully grown, the plant starts producing ethylene, a colorless gas that operates as a phytohormone in organizing the ripening process. When exposed to ethylene, fruits increase their respiration and the accumulated starch is converted back into sugar. During this process, the fruits themselves start producing ethylene, which in turn creates a ripening cycle that affects the entire plant and the ones nearby.

Ethylene can also be artificially supplied to picked unripe produce with a similar ripening effect. This allows the fruit distributors to maintain the produce green until it’s about to reach the shelves, and then gas it to cause it to ripen. Unfortunately, despite their mature appearance, fruits that have been cut too early severely lack flavor. Moreover, these fruits tend to have a shorter shelf life than their naturally ripened counterparts.

Among climacteric fruits, bananas, avocados, kiwis, and pears can fully ripen after being picked – there is no particular advantage to allow these fruits to ripen on their trees. On the other hand, tomatoes, apples, apricots, peaches, plums, mangoes, figs, cantaloupe, and nectarines keep on improving the longer they stay attached to their plants.

Non-climacteric fruits like citrus, pineapples, strawberries, and melons don’t store sugars in the form of starch and, when cut off their vines, they arrest their development and only start to degrade, rather than ripen(2).

Tomatoes had a very slow diffusion in Italy. In addition to their late introduction, they encountered a strong resistance due to their resemblance to the botanically related and highly poisonous nightshade. It took until the beginning of the 20th century for tomatoes to become popular. At that point, however, they became so deeply intertwined with Italian cuisine, that they changed it forever. They brought a depth of flavor that never before was found in a vegetable, and it’s nowadays impossible to imagine Italian food without tomatoes.

The remarkable complexity of tomatoes is well represented by their distinct parts, each contributing in different ways to the flavor.

Cuticle(1); outer fruit wall(2); central pith (3); seeds and semi-liquid jelly and juice (4).
Cuticle(1); outer fruit wall(2); central pith (3); seeds and semi-liquid jelly and juice (4).

Most of the tomato flavor lies in the outer wall (the sweetest part) and in the cuticle (the thin and resistant skin). The jelly and juice surrounding the seeds are instead acidic. As a result, seeded and peeled tomatoes lack flavor and acidity. In cooking, it’s recommended to keep all parts of the tomato fruit together(2), and then strain the resulting product to eliminate any unwanted seeds and skins.

The proportions of skin, walls, jelly, and seeds vary across the different cultivars. Therefore, each of them has different culinary uses. Here are some of the most common Italian preparations that are normally associated with the main tomato varieties. To be noted that tomato juice as a drink is not listed since it isn’t popular in Italy.

Standard globe tomatoes

(Round, smooth, and flattened at the top and bottom. Generally 4-celled, with plenty of juice and seeds.)

Tomatoes are healthy, both raw and cooked. While raw tomatoes contain higher levels of Vitamin C, the antioxidant lycopene (the carotenoid responsible for the red coloring) is boosted by the cooking process and protects the human body from the cell and tissue damage caused by free radicals.

Partly or barely ripe globe tomatoes are used in salads, either by themselves, cut into slices or wedges, or with other veggies (e.g.; cucumbers and bell peppers). Salt, vinegar, and oil are normally used as a dressing. Globe tomatoes are also excellent when paired up with fresh cheese, such as mozzarella, bocconcini, fior di latte, cottage cheese, or burrata. Caprese salad, for instance, consists of tomato and mozzarella, with olive oil and optional basil or oregano. Green globe tomatoes are pickled in vinegar and oil and had as a side.

Coeur de Boeuf (or Beefsteak)

(Big and irregularly shaped, wider than tall. Multi-celled, moderately rich in juice and seeds.)
The stupendously flavorful coeur the boeuf is used in big slices in salads or in sandwiches.

Beefsteak tomato with burrata, olive oil, and oregano.
Beefsteak tomato with burrata, olive oil, and oregano.

Cherry or Campari tomatoes

(Small and 2-celled.)
Also used in salads, whole or halved, fully ripe Campari or cherry tomatoes are added to meat or fish stews.

Campari tomatoes on the vine.
Campari tomatoes on the vine.

Plum tomatoes, e.g.: Roma or San Marzano

(Oblong and smooth, more “mealy” and with fewer seed compartments.)
Strained raw plum tomatoes are used on pizza. Their mealy texture makes them not as appealing to be eaten raw, but they are the preferred choice for all tomato sauces, generally flavored with onion, or with garlic (as in ‘marinara’), or with chili pepper (as in ‘ arrabbiata’, which also has garlic). Plum tomatoes are also best for canning, either strained, chopped or whole (usually peeled, as in the typical “pelati”). In the south of Italy, where in the summer the production of tomatoes often exceeds the consumption needs, canning of strained tomatoes (“passata”) is a common family activity.

Grape tomatoes

(Small plum tomatoes, the size of cherry tomatoes but oblong and mealier.)
Grape tomatoes are generally used in salads, usually whole.

(1) Tomatoes are fruits, being the development of the flowers’ ovaries and containing the plant’s seeds.
(2) Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. 2nd edition (2004).

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Vin Brulé (Mulled Wine) – A Warming Festive Accompaniment

Most European countries have their variation of the British mulled wine, a drink made with red wine and spices, served hot during winter. Northern Italy’s version, popular around Christmas and especially at Christmas markets, is called Vin Brulé (from the French word brûlé, burnt).

Do you blog about authentic Italian food? You may qualify for the coveted Cannolo Award! Check out the details.

The practice of mulling wine goes back to medieval times, probably as a way to use up low quality or spoiled wines. Mulled wine has then remained popular as a comforting winter drink and as a remedy for colds and cases of flu. Its curative effects have then found confirmation in the anti-inflammatory properties of red wine and in the high content of antiseptics and antioxidants of cloves and cinnamon.

As far as the recipe goes, many variations can be found, although they all revolve around similar ingredients. The main difference between mulled wine and vin brulé is in the preparation. Vin brulé is usually boiled until no alcohol remains (a process sometimes accelerated by lighting a flame on the surface). Mulled wine instead is only warmed up for a short amount of time and at lower temperatures to preserve the alcoholic content of the wine. Occasionally, a shot of brandy or sherry is also added at the end for an extra bite.

Vin Brulé (Mulled Wine)

Yield: 6 cups

Total Time: 25 minutes

Prep Time: 5 minutes

Cook Time: 20 minutes

Vin Brulé (Mulled Wine)

Ingredients

  • 1 liter of red wine (any full-bodied wine will do, choose an inexpensive bottle)
  • 200 g of sugar
  • 8 cloves
  • 2 cinnamon sticks
  • 1 orange (preferably with untreated rind)
  • 1 lemon (also preferably with untreated rind)

Preparation

  1. Peel the lemon and the orange making sure to discard all of the white part as it would bring an undesired bitterness.
  2. Put all the ingredients in a large stainless steel pan.
  3. Bring to a boil stirring occasionally with a wooden spoon. Ensure all of the sugar is perfectly dissolved.
  4. As soon as it boils, the alcohol vapors will start to form. By using a long toothpick, carefully light a flame on the surface.
  5. When the flame goes out, the vin brulé is ready. Filter it with a colander and serve hot.
https://www.disgracesonthemenu.com/2011/12/vin-brule-mulled-wine.html

Search Queries

One of the most interesting aspects of keeping a blog is to look up the statistics on how people come across it. Aside from being referred by other websites, many visitors stumble upon the blog by using search engines. When they do, the exact sentence that they typed in into the search bar is collected in the statistics (although anonymized).

This atypical post contains the verbatim transcripts of some of the most interesting search queries that I have seen over the 15 months of running Quatro Fromaggio and Other Disgraces on the Menu. Some of these queries led the visitors to relevant articles which hopefully answered them. Some other queries instead brought up pages that did not satisfy the visitor at all. For some of those, this post also tries to provide some answers. In a way, this post was written by the visitors themselves!

To get started, something that surprised me. Some people were able to get here by performing extremely generic searches. Here are some examples:
Q: what to eat in Italy
Q: type of italian food
Q: typical italian breakfast
Q: various cheese names and their origin
Q: frequently mispronounced Italian
Q: most often misspelled italian words
A: Answering these questions is really hard, but if you read this blog you’ll hopefully get an idea 🙂

Speaking of spelling, many visits came from people who were unsure how to write Italian words. For instance:
Q: correct spelling of margarita pizza
Q: correct spelling of osso bucca
Q: correct spelling of proscuitto
Q: foccaccia misspelling
Q: fromaggio or formaggio
A: Pizza Margherita, Osso Buco, Prosciutto, Focaccia, Formaggio (see Top Misspelled).

Other people were instead completely confused on the meaning of some Italian words:
Q: what is formaggio cheese
Q: how many cheeses i n qu atro formaggi pizza
Q: how many cheese’s in a formaggi cheese
Q: what is formaggio cheese in english
Q: is parmesan cheese the same as formaggio cheese
Q: what cheese can i use in place of formaggio
A: ‘Formaggio‘ is Italian for cheese. “Parmesan” is the English translation of Parmigiano, a type of formaggio.

Q: in cuisine what does colazione mean
Q: colazione for breakfast
A: ‘Colazione‘ is Italian for breakfast.

Some people got here while looking for tips and tricks on Italian food and wine. These are some examples:
Q: why should cored wine bottles be stored on their side?
A: To keep the cork wet, as a dry cork will shrink and let some air into the bottle.

Q: “passito de pantelleria “once opened”
A: Fortified wines such as Passito di Pantelleria usually keep really well, they can be stored in a cool place or in the fridge for quite some time. See the Wine and Italy article for more information.

Q: porcini risotto “dirty water”
Q: do i have to wash porcini mushrooms before rehydrating them
A: The leftover water where the mushrooms have been re-hydrated may or may not be clean (it depends on whether the mushrooms had been cleaned before being dried). Personally, I don’t find that using that water adds that much flavor to my risotto, so I discard it. However, I don’t squeeze or rinse the re-hydrated mushrooms.

Q: perforated pan on top of a pizza stone
Q: perforated pizza disc versus regular pizza disc
A: As far as I know, the perforated pan works better than a regular pizza pan, but it’s used directly in the oven – not on top of a pizza stone. The pizza stone (alone) works best, but it’s harder to use.

Q: can prosciutto ham be kept unrefrigerated
A: No. The whole uncut prosciutto can be stored at low temperatures; once opened it needs to go in the fridge.

Q: where to fill demi johns with amarone della valpolicella
A: I don’t know, but let me know as soon as you find out!

Sometimes the results of searches must have been really disappointing! For example for queries like:
Q: dolcetto d’asti wine kit
A: Seriously? You can’t have a wine kit for a DOC wine, sorry! Unless of course you live in Piedmont 🙂

Q: what white wine goes with limoncello
A: Limoncello is a liqueur. Why would you pair a wine and a liqueur?

Other times instead, people were really onto something. For instance:
Q: why italians call a croissant, brioche?
A: Because they don’t know French pastries 🙂

Q: is gelati plural for gelato
A: Yes!

Q: is formaggio another word for cheese
A: You got it!

People also wondered about weird stuff, or they wanted to know they’re not alone:
Q: what is the italian gelati flavour that tastes like cough medicine
A: Amarena? (Sour cherry)

Q: most popular mouthwash in italy
A: I don’t know… but it’s probably mint flavored.

Q: which type of pasta goes best with aglio
A: Aglio is Italian for garlic. I hope you mean ‘aglio, olio e peperoncino’, in which case I’d say ‘spaghetti’.

Q: soft meringue is disgusting
A: I agree 🙂

Some people wanted to know more about the Italian multi-course meal:
Q: italian courses in a meal
A: See the Italian Courses article.

Q: what is companatico and why am i charged for it
A: ‘Companatico’ is the collective name given to anything that goes with bread. That is the entire meal 🙂 No wonder why you were charged!

Or they had specific questions about the Italian breakfast:
Q: italians eat cold cuts for breakfast
A: Some do, but most don’t. It’s more common in the northern regions, near the border with Austria.

Q: qhat to eat dor breakfast in italian bars
A: The most popular breakfast in bars is cappuccino and croissant. See the Breakfast or Colazione article.

Q: what do italians eat for brunch
A: Brunch is not an Italian tradition. When Italians feel like a late breakfast, they just call it early lunch.

Q: reasons italians don’t have milk in their coffee
A: A lot of Italians do, actually. Not the majority though.

Q: what do italians enjoy with their coffee
A: It depends – something sweet, some chocolate, a glass of mineral water.

Lots of searches were also about autogrill, aperitivo and antipasto.
Q: autogrill panini italy
Q: camogli autogrill
Q: how to order at autogrill italy
A: See the Autogrill article. It’s particularly interesting that people don’t know how to order at an autogrill. It’s probably not the most obvious process 🙂

Q: appertivo – free buffet offered at bars during the happy hour
Q: best aperitivo in milan
Q: non alcoholic aperitivo
A: See the Aperitivo article.

Q: antipasto pickled in oil
Q: antipasto with tuna and pickled vegetables
Q: types of green olives for antipasto
A: See the Antipasto article.

Many people were interested in learning more about Italian wine:
Q: term for wine in italy with atleast 1% more alcohol than the legal minimum
Q: uva fragola wine illegal italy
Q: what does the term “novello” indicate on a wine label?
A: The term for a wine whose alcohol level is greater by at least 1% than the minimum established for its designation is ‘Superiore’. The wine “Fragolino” (made with ‘uva fragola’, Concord grape) is illegal in Italy. The term ‘Novello’ indicates that the wine has been bottled within the end of the year of when (at least 30% of) its grapes have been harvested. See the Wine and Italy article for more information.

Or Italian cheese:
Q: mozzarella cheese in north america compared to italy
A: Italian mozzarella is better than North American mozzarella, and mozzarella from Naples is better than mozzarella from Milan.

Q: what cheese is aged less than 6 months
A: All fast and medium ripening cheeses (e.g.: Mascarpone, Taleggio, Gorgonzola). See the Formaggio Cheese article for more information.

Q: what is the name for cottage cheese in italy
Q: what kind of cheese is sottilette
A: The Kraft product “Jocca” is cottage cheese. ‘Sottilette’ is (processed) cheese slices.

Q: what cheese do you use in quatro formaggi
A: There isn’t a rule, any four kinds of cheese will do. On pizza, they are usually chosen between gorgonzola, scamorza, ricotta, fontina, grana padano; plus of course mozzarella (which may or may not be counted).

Q: formaggio taleggio in north america buy
A: Specialty Italian stores usually have it.

Q: what kind of cheese mixes well with gorgonzola
A: It’s an interesting question. Gorgonzola is normally eaten by itself (delicious on bread!). It is however mixed with other cheese when making cheese sauces, or on gorgonzola pizza (where mozzarella is also added). Another interesting mix is the Torta al Gorgonzola e Mascarpone.

Or gelato:
Q: ice cream in italy
Q: semi fredi gelato
Q: what is the meaning of gelato
A: ‘Gelato’ literally means frozen. It may resemble ice-cream, but it’s a completely different product. A ‘semi-freddo’ is the equivalent of an ice cream cake. See the article on Gelato vs. Ice Cream for more information.

Or even the soft drink “Chinotto”:
Q: what does chinotto taste like
Q: aftertaste chinotto
A: Chinotto is a citrus used to make a popular Italian soft drink. Its bitter aftertaste makes it an acquired flavor.

Italian dressing is also often puzzling to people:
Q: what kind of vinegar is in italian dressing?
Q: what oil is most commonly used in italian dressing
Q: different types of italian dressings
Q: how do italians dress their salads
Q: what kind of oil and vinegar goes on a table
A: See the Italian Dressing article.

People were also interested in the proper way to cook pasta, and some were particularly confused on this regard! For instance:
Q: why it is suggegted to cook the food in salty water
Q: how salty should water for pasta be?
Q: how much salt stays with pasta
A: Salted water gives flavor to the pasta and makes it less likely to stick to itself. Typically, ½ Tbsp of salt is needed for every 4 cups of water. Not much salt will be actually absorbed by the pasta. See the Cooking Pasta 101 article for more information.

Q: “dried egg noodles” gram per person
Q: how much fresh pasta for a first course
Q: how much pasta is a serving in italy?
Q: 80g raw pasta how much cooked
Q: how much is 60g of pasta
A: See the Cooking Pasta 101 article.

Q: which italian pasta doesnt overcook?
Q: what does it mean when it says cook pasta raw
A: Every pasta eventually overcooks. Quality durum semolina pasta takes longer to cook and therefore it also takes longer to overcook. Cooking pasta ‘raw’ doesn’t mean anything, cooking pasta ‘al dente’ (to the tooth) means that the cooked pasta should be firm enough to require it to be chewed. See the Pasta 101 article for more information.

People were also quite interested in gnocchi:
Q: what sauce should gnocchi be served with?
Q: fist size gnocchi
Q: gnocchetti alla romana
Q: ricer alternative gnocchi
A: Gnocchi are served pretty much with any kind of pasta sauces. Perhaps we can consider ‘canederli‘ as fist-size gnocchi. ‘Gnocchi alla Romana’ are made with semolina flour (and no potatoes). In making gnocchi, a potato masher or a food mill can be used as an alternative to the potato ricer.

But they were mostly curious about “Pizzoccheri della Valtellina” – the article which has the highest number of hits to date:
Q: pizzoccheri meaning
Q: pizzoccheri what sort of cheese should i use
Q: what is an equivalent to valtellina casera cheese
A: the name Pizzoccheri has nothing to do with pizza. According to their official website, it derives from ‘pinzocheri’, which jokingly means “bigot people”. ‘Valtellina Casera’ cheese can be replaced with other mild semi-cooked cheeses (such as young Fontina, Montasio, Raclette or Gouda).

Finally, other people were instead more into science and wanted to find out how certain ingredients compare between Italy and North America.

For instance, they look for facts about olive oil:
Q: facts about italy’s olive oil
Q: fats and oils triangle
A: See the Olive Oil Facts article.

Or about rice:
Q: indica and japonica rice examples
Q: relative absorption of water different type of rice
A: See the Rice Demystified article.

Or milk:
Q: difference between italian and american milk
Q: is milk in italy fortified with vitamin d
Q: pasteurized milk shelf life canada italy
Q: does milk in italy taste different
A: Italian milk has a shorter shelf life, and it’s not fortified with Vitamin D. The difference in flavor is mostly due to the cows’ different diet.

Q: is italian milk homoginized
A: Yes, it’s homogenized.

Q: does italy have pasteurized milk
A: Yes, though unpasteurized milk can also be found. See the There’s Milk and Milk article for more information.